Vitamin K as a Diet Supplement with Impact in Human Health: Current Evidence in Age-Related Diseases

Abstract

Vitamin K health benefits have been recently widely shown to extend beyond blood homeostasis and implicated in chronic low-grade inflammatory diseases such as cardiovascular disease, osteoarthritis, dementia, cognitive impairment, mobility disability, and frailty. Novel and more efficient nutritional and therapeutic options are urgently needed to lower the burden and the associated health care costs of these age-related diseases. Naturally occurring vitamin K comprise the phylloquinone (vitamin K1), and a series of menaquinones broadly designated as vitamin K2 that differ in source, absorption rates, tissue distribution, bioavailability, and target activity. Although vitamin K1 and K2 sources are mainly dietary, consumer preference for diet supplements is growing, especially when derived from marine resources. The aim of this review is to update the reader regarding the specific contribution and effect of each K1 and K2 vitamers in human health, identify potential methods for its sustainable and cost-efficient production, and novel natural sources of vitamin K and formulations to improve absorption and bioavailability. This new information will contribute to foster the use of vitamin K as a health-promoting supplement, which meets the increasing consumer demand. Simultaneously, relevant information on the clinical context and direct health consequences of vitamin K deficiency focusing in aging and age-related diseases will be discussed.

Molecular Mechanism of Vitamin K2 Protection against Amyloid-β-Induced Cytotoxicity

“…Gas6 is a VKD protein and is widely expressed in the neuron system [ 41 ]. Gas6/Axl-signaling has been shown to regulate cell survival and proliferation via the PI3K/Akt-signaling pathway [ 48 , 49 ].…”

Recent Advances in Marine-Based Nutraceuticals and Their Health Benefits

“…Both microalgae and macroalgae have been suggested as a good source for sustainable production of vitamin K 1 [ 205 , 206 ]. On the other hand, fish usually contains vitamin K in the form of menaquinone (K 2 ) while algae are a source of phylloquinone (K 1 ) and those two form of vitamin K often show different functions and health promoting properties, therefore algae should not substitute for fish or other animal-based food products as a source of vitamin K, but rather complement it [ 207 ].…”

Role of emerging vitamin K‑dependent proteins: Growth arrest‑specific protein 6, Gla‑rich protein and periostin (Review)

“…MK-4, the dominant form of MK, is found in fish, milk, liver and vegetables. Other MKs are mainly synthesized by microorganisms and are also found in Japanese natto (MK-7), cheese (MK-8, MK-9) and other food (4). Bacteria in the large intestines of humans are the main synthesizer of MKs, such as MK-7, MK-8, MK-10 and MK-11, with the exception of MK-4.…”