“…These costs include deleterious e↵ects on education (Brown and Velásquez, 2017;Koppensteiner and Menezes, 2021;Chang and Padilla-Romo, 2022), health (Koppensteiner and Manacorda, 2016;Brown, 2018;Lindo and Padilla-Romo, 2018;Martínez and Atuesta, 2018), and labor market outcomes (Montoya, 2016;Utar, 2018;Velásquez, 2019). Moreover, the detrimental e↵ects of local violence spill over into safe areas via migration and peer exposure to violence in elementary school (Padilla-Romo and Pelu↵o, 2023). Yet, it is unclear if the spillover e↵ects of local violence are short-lived or persist over time.…”