Victimization Within and Beyond the Prison Walls: A Latent Profile Analysis of Transgender and Gender Diverse Adults

Abstract

Background: Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) people are disproportionately incarcerated in the United States relative to the general population. A dearth of quantitative research has explored victimization as a risk factor for incarceration as well as the victimization experiences of formerly incarcerated TGD populations. Methods: In 2019, 574 TGD adults completed an online survey assessing sociodemographics, victimization across settings, and incarceration history. Latent class analysis was used to identify two sets of latent subgroups based on respondent's victimization experiences: 1) lifetime victimization (low; moderate; and high) and 2) classes of victimization while incarcerated (low; moderate; and high). Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses examined sociodemographic, mental health, and lifetime victimization experiences associated with lifetime incarceration (Outcome 1). Among those with incarceration histories, bivariate hierarchical logistic regression analyses also explored the association between gender identity, race/ethnicity, HIV status, visual gender non-conformity, and class of victimization during incarceration (Outcome 2) . Results: Participants’ mean age was 31.4 ( SD = 11.2), 43.4% had a non-binary gender identity, 81.5% were White, non-Hispanic, 2.1% were living with HIV, and 13.2% had been incarcerated. In the multivariable model for Outcome 1, high levels of victimization, age, being a racial/ethnic minority, being a trans woman, living with HIV, and past-12-month polysubstance use were all associated with increased odds of lifetime incarceration ( p-values < 0.05). In the bivariate hierarchical logistic regression analyses for Outcome 2, living with HIV and having a visually gender non-conforming expression were significantly associated with elevated odds of experiencing high levels of victimization while incarcerated ( p-values < 0.05). Conclusion: Findings document the relationships between victimization and incarceration among TGD people as well as identify the subpopulations at greater risk for incarceration and experiencing victimization while incarcerated. Efforts are needed to prevent victimization across the life course, including while incarcerated and support TGD individuals in coping with the negative sequelae of victimization and incarceration experiences.

Navigating intimate trans citizenship while incarcerated in Australia and the United States

“…This process revealed 68 trans persons (unclear how many of these are trans women) had been incarcerated, with several of them experiencing multiple incarcerations in-and-out of the prison system. In light of the cyclical nature of incarceration and release, including the elevated risk and vulnerability of trans women in men's prisons, some trans women may elect to not disclose their trans history, collectively leading to underreporting and counting of incarcerated trans persons and trans women (Hughto et al, 2022;White Hughto et al, 2018).…”

“…As critical analysts, trans rights scholars, allies and clinicians, including trans people with lived experience of incarceration, we are concerned with the ways in which trans women navigate being, belonging and relationships within men's incarceration settings, often characterized as hyper-masculinized and hyper-sexualized environments (Rosenberg & Oswin, 2015;Sanders et al, 2022). Although trans men and gender diverse persons in carceral settings are also of concern, our paper focuses on trans women as they are disproportionately affected by discrimination, violence and other forms of victimization restricting their access to material and financial resources, including employment and housing, translating to some trans women turning to street economies and sex work for economic survival (Garofalo et al, 2006;Grant et al, 2011;Hughto et al, 2018Hughto et al, , 2022. Collectively these experiences, coupled with biased policing practices (Grant et al, 2011;Wolff & Cokely, 2007), place trans women at higher risk of arrest and incarceration (Hughto et al, 2018(Hughto et al, , 2022Sevelius & Jenness, 2017).…”

“…Although trans men and gender diverse persons in carceral settings are also of concern, our paper focuses on trans women as they are disproportionately affected by discrimination, violence and other forms of victimization restricting their access to material and financial resources, including employment and housing, translating to some trans women turning to street economies and sex work for economic survival (Garofalo et al, 2006;Grant et al, 2011;Hughto et al, 2018Hughto et al, , 2022. Collectively these experiences, coupled with biased policing practices (Grant et al, 2011;Wolff & Cokely, 2007), place trans women at higher risk of arrest and incarceration (Hughto et al, 2018(Hughto et al, , 2022Sevelius & Jenness, 2017). Once incarcerated in men's settings in both Australia and the United States, trans women are at significant risk of experiencing sexual and physical abuse, harassment, assault and indifference, where their femininity is both devalued and routinely punished Grant et al, 2011;Lynch & Bartels, 2017;Sanders et al, 2022;White Hughto et al, 2018;Wilson et al, 2017).…”

A Critical Discourse Analysis of an Australian Incarcerated Trans Woman's Letters of Complaint and Self‐Advocacy

“…2022; Hughto et al. 2022; Stanley and Smith 2015; Van Hout, Kewley, and Hillis 2020). Moreover, within correctional settings, trans women often have limited access to gender‐affirming medical care and a lack of gender‐affirming accommodations (Brömdal et al.…”

“…Research from the US and Australia suggest that trans incarcerated persons, especially trans women, are a “vulnerable group” ( Brömdal et al 2019 ; Brömdal et al 2022 ; Brown 2014 ; Lynch and Bartels 2017 ; U.S. Department of Justice 2012 ) who experience significant and disproportionate violence, harassment, and sexual mistreatment by other incarcerated persons and correctional staff due to having a gender identity or expression that does not align with socially constructed norms, rooted in cisnormativity and heteronormativity ( Brömdal et al 2019 ; Jenness and Fenstermaker 2016 ; Lynch and Bartels 2017 ; National Center for Transgender Equality 2018 ; Phillips et al 2020 ; Rosenberg and Oswin 2015 ; Brömdal et al 2022 ; Clark et al 2022 ; Hughto et al 2022 ; Stanley and Smith 2015 ; Van Hout, Kewley, and Hillis 2020 ). Moreover, within correctional settings, trans women often have limited access to gender-affirming medical care and a lack of gender-affirming accommodations ( Brömdal et al 2019 ; Brown 2014 ; Van Hout, Kewley, and Hillis 2020 ; White Hughto et al 2018 ; Clark, White Hughto, and Pachankis 2017 ; Brömdal et al 2022 ; Hughto et al 2022 ).…”