Vibration of a Flattened Drop. I. Observation

To kill or be killed: how HIV exhausts the immune system

“…ACAD is normally prevented by cytokines and, accordingly, IL-2 and IL-15 can promote in vitro the survival of patients' T cells by upregulating the expression of Bcl-2. 97,98 As discussed below, immunotherapy with these cytokines are actually under evaluation to restore HIV-specific immunity.…”

“…140 Altered differentiation of CTL might also be linked to an unfavorable cytokine environment, as rescue from apoptosis of the Bcl-2 low CD8 T cell subset, detected in the lymph nodes and blood of individuals chronically infected with HIV, can be induced by exogenous IL-2 and IL-15. 95,97,98 Defective help CD4 þ T cells are the helper cells (T h ) of the immune system that facilitate the generation of antibody and CTL responses. After encountering the antigen, naive T h cells can differentiate into at least two functional classes of cells during an immune response -T h 1 cells, which secrete IFN-g, and T h 2 cells, which secrete IL-4.…”

Apoptosis of HIV-specific CD8+ T cells: an HIV evasion strategy

“…131 On the other hand, in vitro treatment with IL-2 corrects the cell-cycle deregulation observed in CD8 þ T cells from HIV-positive patients, indicating a role of cytokine deficiency in apoptosis of CD8 þ T cells. 132 Exogenous cytokines like IL-2, IL-10, IL-12 and IL-15 can inhibit apoptosis of CD8 þ T cells in vitro [133][134][135][136] and augment in vitro the immune functions of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from HIV-infected patients, 137 further supporting the involvement of cytokines in the CD8 þ T-cell loss in HIV infection. An altered cytokine profile toward a Th2 type (IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10) has been suggested; 138 however, this has been challenged in other studies where an intracellular staining assay was used to determine cytokine production in HIV-infected patients.…”

Microfluidic flow driven by electric fields

“…The spontaneous oscillations of puddles on a hot surface were first reported in 1952 by Norman J. Holter [140]. Later various other authors [141,142,143,144,116,145,146,147] studied it in detail. Puddle oscillations are often produced by a periodic acceleration field applied to the droplet.…”

“…None of the above mentioned references shows such a substantial deviation in resonance frequencies as we observed experimentally. The experiments with flat droplets found in literature are carried out without sandwiching them between two substrates [141,142,143,144,116,145,146,147] and no deviations in the resonance frequencies are reported. However a theoretical study on cylindrical drop sandwiched between two solid planes reports substantial reduction in the resonance frequencies with increasing hysteresis [149].…”