Versatile Application of Nanocellulose: From Industry to Skin Tissue Engineering and Wound Healing

Abstract

Nanocellulose is cellulose in the form of nanostructures, i.e., features not exceeding 100 nm at least in one dimension. These nanostructures include nanofibrils, found in bacterial cellulose; nanofibers, present particularly in electrospun matrices; and nanowhiskers, nanocrystals, nanorods, and nanoballs. These structures can be further assembled into bigger two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) nano-, micro-, and macro-structures, such as nanoplatelets, membranes, films, microparticles, and porous macroscopic matrices. There are four main sources of nanocellulose: bacteria (Gluconacetobacter), plants (trees, shrubs, herbs), algae (Cladophora), and animals (Tunicata). Nanocellulose has emerged for a wide range of industrial, technology, and biomedical applications, namely for adsorption, ultrafiltration, packaging, conservation of historical artifacts, thermal insulation and fire retardation, energy extraction and storage, acoustics, sensorics, controlled drug delivery, and particularly for tissue engineering. Nanocellulose is promising for use in scaffolds for engineering of blood vessels, neural tissue, bone, cartilage, liver, adipose tissue, urethra and dura mater, for repairing connective tissue and congenital heart defects, and for constructing contact lenses and protective barriers. This review is focused on applications of nanocellulose in skin tissue engineering and wound healing as a scaffold for cell growth, for delivering cells into wounds, and as a material for advanced wound dressings coupled with drug delivery, transparency and sensorics. Potential cytotoxicity and immunogenicity of nanocellulose are also discussed.

Bacterial nanocelullose in biomedical applications: a review

“…There is also much research about the application of BNC in wound healing. Experiments made on mice in vivo , in which they were subjected to a study of skin healing on their back, showed that BNC dressings accelerated the wound healing process in comparison to ordinary dressings (gauze) . The confirmation that the BNC dressings accelerate wound healing is the higher number of newly created blood vessels, a higher level of collagen expression and a lower number of mast cells infiltrating the damaged site .…”

“…A study on guinea pigs showed that BNC membranes accelerated the treatment of thick wounds. Wounds were created by surgical removal of the skin (2 × 4 cm) from the back . Modulation with BNC membranes affects the healing of skin wounds.…”

“…One side was modulated with larger pores – it had a looser rough structure. A microfluids‐based in vitro wound healing model revealed that the bottom side of the films better promoted the migration of cells to facilitate wound healing . In an experiment with other modulations on Wistar rats, the covered bottom side of the films showed better skin recovery …”

“…A nanocellulose gel has been developed that allows the release of sericin . It positively affects the proliferation of fibroblasts, increases cell viability and improves the production of extracellular matrix . Sericin composites can be used in wound dressings as well as in tissue engineering …”

“…BNC itself does not show antibacterial properties; only after combination with other substances or compounds with antimicrobial properties does it show them. For modification of cellulose one can use metal‐based agents, antiseptics, antibiotics and various nature‐derived antibacterial molecules . Metal‐based agents used for bacterial cellulose modification include various forms of silver suladiazine and silver nanoparticles, both of which are active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus .…”