Vegetation of Singapore

Abstract

Singapore (1°21'07.6"N 103°49'11.3"E) is a tropical island-state situated south of Peninsular Malaysia, and north of the Riau Archipelago. Similar to tropical areas elsewhere, Singapore's climate is characterised by abundant rainfall (mean annual: 2165.9 mm), and generally high temperature (diurnal range: 23-33°C) and humidity (mean annual relative: 83.9%) throughout the year (Meteorological Service Singapore, 2018). Singapore's terrain is generally low-lying, with about three quarters of the island below 15 m. The highest point is the summit of Bukit Timah, which is at 163.63 m elevation (Wong, 2011). In 1963, the land area was 581.5 km 2 , and by 2018 had increased to 724.2 km 2 through land reclamation (Singapore Land Authority, 2019). There are 62 offshore islands-the two largest (Pulau Ubin and Pulau Tekong) are located northeast of the main island, and the rest are mostly found south of the main island. Before the arrival of the British in 1819, Singapore was likely covered mostly by lowland mixed dipterocarp forest (Fig. 1), similar to the original forest that was dominant in this part of Southeast Asia (Corlett, 1991, 1992). Mangrove forest likely occurred near river mouths with the vegetation transiting into freshwater swamp forest further inland. Stretches of sandy beach and rocky shore would have lined parts of the coast. Early human settlements (fourteenth to eighteenth centuries) have been recorded at the mouths or estuaries of the Singapore River, Kallang River, Seletar River and Punggol River. Singapore underwent tremendous landscape and ecological transformation after British colonisation (see Corlett (1992) and O'Dempsey (2014) for detailed accounts). Large tracts of lowland dipterocarp rain forest were cleared for timber, then converted to plantations of various crops, including black pepper, gambier, and pineapple. By the early 1900s, most lowland dipterocarp rain forest had been cleared and the remaining few patches were mostly gazetted as forest reserves. Extensive black pepper and gambier plantations had rendered the soil infertile in many areas. After H.N. Ridley's arrival in Singapore in 1888 and his experiments with the excision method to tap rubber more effectively and sustainably, large areas were converted into rubber plantations (Wycherley, 1959; Wee & Corlett, 1986). Kampungs (traditional villages) also increased in number as the island became more developed. Mangrove habitats were also affected by over-exploitation although later, in 1939, Pandan and Kranji mangrove areas were gazetted as forest reserves to allow regeneration (Wee & Corlett, 1986). After Singapore became independent from Malaysia in 1965, the new island nation began to focus on its industrial infrastructure resulting in the discontinuation or down-scaling of many agriculture-based activities. The growth of public housing estates to cater to the basic needs of a growing population saw most residents of the rural kampungs eventually resettled to high-rise public housing by the 1990s. Plantations and kampungs were grad...

Detection of Japanese Encephalitis Virus in Culex Mosquitoes in Singapore

“…Hence, 56% of the island is covered with greenery that includes nature reserves (NRs), urban parks, mangroves, and adventitious vegetation. 19 These greener areas support close to 400 species of birds, 20 including migratory birds, and produce a conducive environment for more than 140 species of mosquitoes. 21 Among the birds, several species of family Ardeidae such as black-crowned night heron, cattle egret, and little egret are known to be reservoirs for JEV.…”

Development of spontaneous vegetation on reclaimed land in Singapore measured by NDVI

“…If it is subsoil that is taken from further inland, tree species that occur are similar the exotic-dominated Waste Woodlands described above. If the fill material used is marine sand, species that occur near the sea are Canavalia cathartica and Ipomoea pes-caprae , and further back where the soil is more consolidated, Casuarina equisetifolia and Planchonella obovata [ 69 ]. In the case of Changi, some planting occurred of hardy and fast-growing trees that can tolerate brackish waters.…”

“…Some species used are Casuarina equisetifolia and Terminalia catappa [ 70 ] where their deep roots are ideal for stabilising the soil. These plantings mostly develop into monoculture plots of Casuarina Forests with an understorey shrub layer of Lantana camara [ 69 ]. Pulau Semakau is an exception to fill material because it is neither subsoil or marine sand but incineration waste.…”

Decoupled responses of native and exotic tree diversities to distance from old‐growth forest and soil phosphorus in novel secondary forests

“…The Republic of Singapore (1°22′ N, 103°49′ E) is an ideal study site given its extreme vegetation change over a short span of about 200 years (Corlett, 1992; Yee et al, 2019a). About 28% of Singapore's total land area today is natural (i.e., non‐managed) vegetation but consists almost entirely of different types of secondary forest; primary forest covers only 0.28% of the country's total land area (Yee et al, 2011).…”