Value of freedom to choose encoded by the human brain

Abstract

Humans and animals value the opportunity to choose by preferring alternatives that offer more rather than fewer choices. This preference for choice may arise not only from an increased probability of obtaining preferred outcomes but also from the freedom it provides. We used human neuroimaging to investigate the neural basis of the preference for choice as well as for the items that could be chosen. In each trial, participants chose between two options, a monetary amount option and a “choice option.” The latter consisted of a number that corresponded to the number of everyday items participants would subsequently be able to choose from. We found that the opportunity to choose from a larger number of items was equivalent to greater amounts of money, indicating that participants valued having more choice; moreover, participants varied in the degree to which they valued having the opportunity to choose, with some valuing it more than the increased probability of obtaining preferred items. Neural activations in the mid striatum increased with the value of the opportunity to choose. The same region also coded the value of the items. Conversely, activation in the dorsolateral striatum was not related to the value of the items but was elevated when participants were offered more choices, particularly in those participants who overvalued the opportunity to choose. These data suggest a functional dissociation of value representations within the striatum, with general representations in mid striatum and specific representations of the value of freedom provided by the opportunity to choose in dorsolateral striatum.

Choose to move: The motivational impact of autonomy support on motor learning

“…Furthermore, exercising control and the prospective opportunity to do so appears to be inherently rewarding (Fujiwara et al, 2013;Leotti & Delgado, 2011. Choice, or the anticipation of the opportunity for choice, is associated with increased activity of brain regions directly involved in reward processing (Fujiwara et al, 2013;Leotti & Delgado, 2011.…”

“…Choice, or the anticipation of the opportunity for choice, is associated with increased activity of brain regions directly involved in reward processing (Fujiwara et al, 2013;Leotti & Delgado, 2011. Greater interest in learning a task and emotional engagement (Leotti & Delgado, 2014;Reeve & Tseng, 2011) may be indicative of this reward function.…”

Neural dynamics of voluntary decision-making

“…Therefore, the ability to choose may depend, in part, on providing flexibility of control, such that one's actions most strongly influence the outcome (Mistry & Liljeholm, 2016). However, there is also evidence that individuals display a strong preference for the opportunity to choose even when this grants no benefit in the eventual outcome Fujiwara et al, 2013;. In fact, this preference for choice appears to be conserved across a number of species .…”

“…Decisions are regarded, and reportedly experienced, as free only when an individual has the opportunity to take an alternative course of action. Accordingly, a number of behavioural studies have reported a choice bias, in which individuals preferentially select options that provide more choice Cockburn et al, 2014;Fujiwara et al, 2013;. Choice preference has commonly been related to theories of self-determinism, which propose that the ability to choose promotes a sense of control over the environment Ryan & Deci, 2000).…”

“…It has been commonly reported that, when faced with one option that leads to a set action to receive an outcome or a second option that leads to a subsequent choice, humans, and other species, preferentially choose the option that provides further choice Fujiwara et al, 2013;. Individuals are also more likely to choose an item when offered with an alternative than when the same item is offered alone .…”