Validation of large-volume batch solar reactors for the treatment of rainwater in field trials in sub-Saharan Africa

Reyneke, Brandon; Ndlovu, Thando; Vincent, Martín; Martínez-García, Azahara; Polo-Lopez, MI; Fernández‐Ibáñez, Pilar; Ferrero, Giuliana; Khan, S. Ajmal; McGuigan, Kevin G.; Khan, Wesaal

doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137223

Cited by 23 publications

(15 citation statements)

References 30 publications

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“…Prototype I solar reactor (140 L treatment volume) consisted of three 200 mm diameter PMMA reactor tubes and Prototype II solar reactor (88 L treatment volume) consisted of eight 100 mm diameter PMMA tubes (Figure S1-Supplementary Data). Further details of the PMMA reactors are described in Reyneke et al (2020).…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…While studies have shown that the novel solar reactors developed in the WATERSPOUTT project are suitable for water disinfection (Polo-López et al 2019;García-Gil et al 2020;Reyneke et al 2020), the aim of this study, which was part of a larger study (Ozores Diez 2021), was to investigate the safety of the reactors in terms of toxicity by investigating the presence of toxic leachables in the disinfected water. To date, toxicity studies of SODIS have largely focused on small scale reactors made of PET (Schmid et al 2008;Ubomba-Jaswa et al 2010;Bach et al 2014).…”

Section: Graphical Abstract Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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In vitro toxicity studies of novel solar water disinfection reactors using the E-screen bioassay and the Ames test

et al. 2021

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Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a cost-effective point of use method for disinfecting water, usually in a 2 L polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottle. To increase the volume of water disinfected, three novel transparent reactors were developed using PET in 25 L transparent jerrycans, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) in tubular solar reactors capable of delivering >20 L of water and polypropylene (PP) in 20 L buckets. In vitro bioassays were used to investigate any toxic substances leached from the plastic reactors into disinfected water as a result of exposure to sunshine for up to 9 months. The Ames test was used to test for mutagenicity and the E-screen bioassay to test for estrogenicity. No mutagenicity was detected in any sample and no estrogenicity was found in the SODIS treated water produced by the PMMA reactors or the PP buckets. While water disinfected using the PET reactors showed no estrogenicity following exposure to the sun for 3 and 6 months, estrogenicity was detected following 9 months' exposure to sunlight; however levels detected were within the acceptable daily intake for 17β-estradiol (E2) of up to 50 ng/kg body weight/day.

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Graphical Abstract Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

In vitro toxicity studies of novel solar water disinfection reactors using the E-screen bioassay and the Ames test

et al. 2021

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“…PET transmits UVA and visible light but is opaque to UVB [ 39 ], preventing the possibility of the most powerful type of direct cell damage caused by UVB radiation [ 38 ]. Alternative containers and materials that transmit UVA and UVB radiation have been successfully evaluated, including polypropylene (PP); polycarbonate (PC); polystyrene (PS) [ 39 ]; polyethylene (PE) bags [ 40 ]; polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA); [ 41 , 42 ]; and glass reactors (fitted with compound parabolic collectors) [ 43 , 44 , 45 ].…”

Section: Sodis: Variablesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…On the other hand, non-transportable, static SODIS systems are also used to provide safe drinking water in larger communities, such as small schools or clinics [ 10 , 42 ]. In this sense, good mechanical properties for the materials are not essential since the containers are less subject to falls and scratches that can decrease light transmission or cause breakages.…”

Section: Sodis: Variablesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Solar Water Disinfection to Produce Safe Drinking Water: A Review of Parameters, Enhancements, and Modelling Approaches to Make SODIS Faster and Safer

et al. 2021

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Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is one the cheapest and most suitable treatments to produce safe drinking water at the household level in resource-poor settings. This review introduces the main parameters that influence the SODIS process and how new enhancements and modelling approaches can overcome some of the current drawbacks that limit its widespread adoption. Increasing the container volume can decrease the recontamination risk caused by handling several 2 L bottles. Using container materials other than polyethylene terephthalate (PET) significantly increases the efficiency of inactivation of viruses and protozoa. In addition, an overestimation of the solar exposure time is usually recommended since the process success is often influenced by many factors beyond the control of the SODIS-user. The development of accurate kinetic models is crucial for ensuring the production of safe drinking water. This work attempts to review the relevant knowledge about the impact of the SODIS variables and the techniques used to develop kinetic models described in the literature. In addition to the type and concentration of pathogens in the untreated water, an ideal kinetic model should consider all critical factors affecting the efficiency of the process, such as intensity, spectral distribution of the solar radiation, container-wall transmission spectra, ageing of the SODIS reactor material, and chemical composition of the water, since the substances in the water can play a critical role as radiation attenuators and/or sensitisers triggering the inactivation process.

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“…However, it has several drawbacks that have been the subject of recent studies for their mitigation: (i) The water treated with SODIS, as mentioned, must be drunk within 24 h to avoid the reemergence of pathogenic organisms' activity after solar exposure [13]; (ii) The action of sunlight on the plastic material may release chemical products into the drinking water. There are controversial studies about the detection and measurement of photoproducts from the PET containers: some suggest that these derivates do not exceed the limits established for the quality of drinking water yet do exceed the limits in bags manufactured with the same material [14], while others determine that the emitted products are mostly volatile and do not accumulate in the water at sufficient concentrations to raise health concerns during the daily use of the technique, and they have been proven to produce a non-significant increase in the genotoxicity of the treated water [15]; (iii) The volumes treated were limited (containers were frequently of no more than 2 L, as pointed out previously), but in recent years some alternative, viable strategies have been demonstrated, such as the use of solar reactors, bags and bottles of larger capacities, capable of treating up to 200 L per day [16,17]; (iv) Incoming solar UV-radiation is limited, although it can be increased through the use of solar mirrors, including compound parabolic collectors among others [16,18].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 97%

Worldwide Research Trends on Solar-Driven Water Disinfection

Martín

Brindley

Pérez

et al. 2021

IJERPH

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“Ensure access to water for all”, states Goal 6 of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. This worldwide challenge requires identifying the best water disinfection method for each scenario. Traditional methods have limitations, which include low effectiveness towards certain pathogens and the formation of disinfection byproducts. Solar-driven methods, such as solar water disinfection (SODIS) or solar photocatalysis, are novel, effective, and financially and environmentally sustainable alternatives. We have conducted a critical study of publications in the field of water disinfection using solar energy and, hereby, present the first bibliometric analysis of scientific literature from Elsevier’s Scopus database within the last 20 years. Results show that in this area of growing interest USA, Spain, and China are the most productive countries in terms of publishing, yet Europe hosts the most highly recognized research groups, i.e., Spain, Switzerland, Ireland, and UK. We have also reviewed the journals in which researchers mostly publish and, using a systematic approach to determine the actual research trends and gaps, we have analyzed the capacity of these publications to answer key research questions, pinpointing six clusters of keywords in relation to the main research challenges, open areas, and new applications that lie ahead. Most publications focused on SODIS and photocatalytic nanomaterials, while a limited number focused on ensuring adequate water disinfection levels, testing regulated microbial indicators and emerging pathogens, and real-world applications, which include complex matrices, large scale processes, and exhaustive cost evaluation.

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Validation of large-volume batch solar reactors for the treatment of rainwater in field trials in sub-Saharan Africa

Cited by 23 publications

References 30 publications

In vitro toxicity studies of novel solar water disinfection reactors using the E-screen bioassay and the Ames test

In vitro toxicity studies of novel solar water disinfection reactors using the E-screen bioassay and the Ames test

Solar Water Disinfection to Produce Safe Drinking Water: A Review of Parameters, Enhancements, and Modelling Approaches to Make SODIS Faster and Safer

Worldwide Research Trends on Solar-Driven Water Disinfection

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