Utilizing Electrochemical-Based Sensing Approaches for the Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Clinical Samples: A Review

Abstract

The development of precise and efficient diagnostic tools enables early treatment and proper isolation of infected individuals, hence limiting the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The standard diagnostic tests used by healthcare workers to diagnose severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection have some limitations, including longer detection time, the need for qualified individuals, and the use of sophisticated bench-top equipment, which limit their use for rapid SARS-CoV-2 assessment. Advances in sensor technology have renewed the interest in electrochemical biosensors miniaturization, which provide improved diagnostic qualities such as rapid response, simplicity of operation, portability, and readiness for on-site screening of infection. This review gives a condensed overview of the current electrochemical sensing platform strategies for SARS-CoV-2 detection in clinical samples. The fundamentals of fabricating electrochemical biosensors, such as the chosen electrode materials, electrochemical transducing techniques, and sensitive biorecognition molecules, are thoroughly discussed in this paper. Furthermore, we summarised electrochemical biosensors detection strategies and their analytical performance on diverse clinical samples, including saliva, blood, and nasopharyngeal swab. Finally, we address the employment of miniaturized electrochemical biosensors integrated with microfluidic technology in viral electrochemical biosensors, emphasizing its potential for on-site diagnostics applications.

Sequence-Specific Electrochemical Genosensor for Rapid Detection of blaOXA-51-like Gene in Acinetobacter baumannii

“…Additionally, at high density, steric hinderances can result in a loss of activity [ 90 ]. Despite this limitation, many studies have used antibodies as biorecognition molecules in electrochemical biosensor development because the method allows for easier sample preparation and also possesses good sensitivity and specificity [ 37 ]. The use of other bioreceptors such as enzymes, phages, cells, and aptamers have also been explored.…”

“…Electrochemical biosensors are specific, sensitive, and rapid, making them suitable for identification of microorganisms in samples [ 37 ]. DNA biosensors (genosensors) are inherently stable physicochemically and rely on the distinctive nature of genetic information to specifically identify microorganisms in human infections [ 38 ].…”

“…Biological signals generated by this interaction are then detected as electrical signals through transducers, using appropriate equipment. Target analytes can be detected using biosensors via indirect sensing (labelled system) or direct sensing (label-free system) [ 37 , 39 ]. An electrodeposited gold nanostructure-based electrochemical biosensor was reported for Enterococcus faecalis , which could detect 30.1 ng µL −1 genomic DNA [ 40 ].…”

Electrochemical lateral-flow device for rapid COVID-19 antigen-diagnostic testing

“…In that system, the presence of a targeted analyte can induce a decrease in the signal intensity (signal-off), which can be monitored via an electrochemical reader [19] . Since then, there has been a steady increase in reports of the detection of COVID-19 by electrochemical sensors, demonstrating excellent efficacy and application in human samples [20] , [21] , [22] , [23] . Nevertheless, electrochemical-biosensor platforms are still limited by the multiple steps involved in the testing process, including sample introduction, repetitive washing, and additional signaling-agent introduction.…”

Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Using Reverse Transcription Helicase Dependent Amplification and Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Amplification Combined with Lateral Flow Assay

“…However, sequencing is not recommended for large-scale testing in emergency situations because it is an expensive and slow approach, and very experienced personnel are needed to perform the test and interpret the results. However, the application of sequencing is crucial for the detection new mutations and new variants of SARS-CoV-2 [ 6 , 7 ].…”