“…These surveys, constructed with the goal of assessing mathematics learning at the system level, are having increasing implications from educational, instructional, cultural-historical, and policy perspectives both locally and globally (Atkin, 1998;Breakspear, 2012;Kanes et al, 2014;Tasaki, 2017). All this has led to large-scale standardized assessments becoming, in different directions, the subject of research in mathematics education (De Lange, 2007;Kloosterman et al, 2015;Meinck et al, 2017;Suurtamm et al, 2016). In particular, several studies highlight the extent to which mixed-method research conducted from the analysis of large-scale mathematics assessment questions can characterize, quantify and measure the extent of several phenomena already studied in the literature framed by internationally shared constructs and contextualize them, within different educational systems (e.g., Facciaroni et al, 2023;Ferretti et al, 2022;Garuti & Martignone, 2019;Mazza & Gambin, 2023).…”