Using amphibians in laboratory studies: precautions against the emerging infectious disease chytridiomycosis

Abstract

The African clawed frog Xenopus laevis is by far the most widely used amphibian species in laboratories. In the wild, X. laevis is an asymptomatic carrier of an emerging infectious disease called chytridiomycosis. The vector is the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which has devastating effects on wild amphibian populations around the world. The impact of Bd on the metabolism of X. laevis has not been comprehended yet. However, even if asymptomatic, an infection is likely to affect the individual's physiology, immunology, development, reproduction and overall response to stress from a purely medical point of view, which will introduce noise and therefore increase variance within experimental groups of X. laevis. This could have implications on the scientific results from studies using this species. Here, we review the current knowledge on treatments of infected amphibians and propose a hygiene protocol adapted to laboratory populations and amphibian husbandry. Following the presented sanitation guidelines could further prevent the spread of Bd and probably of other amphibian pathogens. The sanitation guidelines will help to reduce the impact of amphibian husbandry on natural populations and must be considered a crucial contribution to amphibian conservation, as today 32% of all amphibians are considered threatened.

Revision of the Russian Marchantiales. I. A Review of the Genus Plagiochasma Lehm. et Lindenb. (Aytoniaceae, Hepaticae)

“…Thalli apical segments similar in length to other segments; vent ral scales with 1-2 triangular to widely triangular, hyaline to rose, pink or violet appendages, appendage length/width ra tio 1.5-2 [the species is recorded from adjacent areas in China and Japan (Bischler 1979, Piippo 1990, Katagiri & Furuki 2012 Description ( Fig. 1): Thalli small-to medium-sized, 5-15 (-24) mm long, 2-4 (-6) mm wide, forming more or less pure mats; dichotomously branched, rarely with ventral in no vations; segments oblong; apical segments frequently 2-4 times shorter than other segments; apex notched; upper surface not reticulate, flat, sometimes slightly concave; up per surface yellowish-green to olive-green or strongly yel lowish, sometimes with red-brown secondary pigmen tation; thallus margins undulate to crispate, strongly incur ved when dry; purplish to red-brown tinged.…”

“…Distribution: The area of the species covers Southern (In dia, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan), South-Eastern (Philipines) and Eastern (China, Japan, Taiwan, Republic of Korea and Asi an part of Russia) Asia (Bischler 1979, Piippo 1990, Yama da & Choe 1997, Long 2006, Piippo & Koponen 2013, Katagiri & Furuki 2012, Singh & Singh 2009, Kon stantinova, Bakalin et al 2009). Kamimura (1939) recorded Plagiochasma intermedium Lin denb.…”

“…et Gottsche for Moneron Island, a small island near Sa kha lin, the Russian Far East. Later Bischler (1979) studied 21 specimens identified as P. intermedium from Asia (but not that from Moneron Island) and found most of them be long to P. japonicum, also P. pterospermum, and (only two spe ci mens) to P. cordatum. In the same paper Bischler also writes (1979: 45): «Par contre, sa [P. japonicum] présence à Sa khalin où le climat est nettement continental, paraît peu pro bable».…”

“…Color of vent ral scale oil-bodies varied from colorless to (rarely) sil ve ry-shine (#26-08-1/1). Variation in sexuality: most authors regarded Plagiochasma japonicum as autoicous (Bischler 1977, 1979, Bapna & Kachroo 2000. Studying the material from Trans-Baikal and Primorskii Territories we found the male and female plants often growing in separate patches.…”

“…Distribution: The area covers Southern (Bhutan, In dia), South-Eastern (Philipines, Hawaiian Islands) and Eastern (China, Mongolia, Japan, Taiwan, Korea and Asian part of Russia) Asia (Bischler 1979, Piippo 1990, Long & Grolle 1990, Meinunger et al 1991, Yamada & Choe 1997, Katagiri & Furuki 2012, Konstantinova, Bakalin et al 2009). Earlier, the species was reported in Russia from Altay (Potemkin 2010) and Buryatiya Republics (Kazanovskiy & Potem kin 1995), Zabaikalskii (Afonina et al 2012) and Primor skii (Gambaryan 1992) Territories.…”