Using a three-stage focus group design to develop questionnaire items for a mass survey on corruption and austerity: a roadmap

Abstract

PurposeThis article presents focus groups as a method to enhance questionnaire design to frame and test items for a mass survey on corruption and austerity in democracy. Such methodology lacks systematization when it comes to the description of implementation procedures and the discussion of effective contribution to the development of survey questions on sensitive topics. The objective of this article is to contribute to the specialized literature on corruption by offering a novel focus group approach and a roadmap to guide researchers in the field when using this methodology to develop questionnaire items. This hands-on guide can be adaptable to other (survey) studies on issues prone to social desirability bias.Design/methodology/approachThis article proposes an innovative multi-technique (short questionnaire, visual stimuli and exploratory discussion with expert moderation) focus group approach to collect informal impressions about corruption and austerity. By developing a focus group design through the combination of different research techniques, the authors were able to triangulate reflexive, spontaneous and interactive qualitative bottom-up information about individual perceptions and reactions to sensitive topics. By describing how to implement these groups, other than discussing what type of qualitative information can be extracted from these discussions and to what effect, the authors seek to present a hands-on guide that can be replicated and adapted to similar studies. This roadmap will help researchers to test individual perceptions and reactions to sensitive topics through the use of tailored focus groups in order to enhance the quality of survey questionnaires prior to engaging in a high-cost fieldwork.FindingsThe article concludes that the adoption of the multi-technique focus group approach to requalify and test questions for a nationwide survey gives us a better understanding of the many ethical dilemmas individuals confront when thinking about and expressing their views on sensitive topics prone to social desirability bias. The proposed multi-technique focus group approach proved to be effective to engage participants during sessions and to obtain relevant and unanticipated information for the development of new questionnaire items and the reviewing of old ones.Research limitations/implicationsImplementing Focus Group (FG) in regions with different cultural traditions and levels of development and contrasting the perceptions, values and attitudes of two generations, with different formative backgrounds is not an easy task. In order to secure the adequate number and type of participants, the Focus Group were organized in close collaboration with four higher education institutions and two lifelong learning programs where the sessions took place. Participation was voluntary and consented, in accordance with the applicable legislation and standards for social research.Practical implicationsThe article presents an accessible and adaptable roadmap to researchers working in the field of corruption studies as well as anticorruption government agencies and CSOs interested in enhancing the quality of survey questionnaires on sensitive topics target of social desirability before engaging in a high-cost fieldwork and to describe relevant information that can be extracted from the discussions held.Social implicationsMost cross-country surveys on corruption tend to use basic/traditional measures to assess the phenomenon, such as questions on extension, acceptability and/or experience. They take almost for granted that people have the same understanding of this complex construct, which may not hold true, as the focus group discussions illustrate. The three-stage focus group design aims to improve the quality of a survey design regarding people's attitudes, perceptions and experiences of corruption in democracy, by contributing to the development of new questions that tap into the relationship between social condemnation and the individual's socio-economic conditions.Originality/valueThe article provides a low-cost combination of qualitative-oriented (questionnaire development through focus groups) with a quantitative-oriented research tool (mass survey implementation) to meet mixed-method research objectives and enhance the ability to capture several “non-statistical” dimensions of complex social phenomena that are often neglected when a single-methodology approach is used.

Deontological and Consequentialist Ethics and Attitudes Towards Corruption: A Survey Data Analysis

“…We draw these two variables from a set of five attitude statements along which a given action is evaluated as corrupt or not (NSW De Sousa, 2008;ICAC, 1994ICAC, , 2001: the breach of legal norms; the conformity to social norms; the noble cause intention; the (positive) externalities to third parties; and the unawareness of the law. These items have been used in different survey rounds and were pre-tested in focus group discussions prior to conducting the fieldwork to check their intelligibility and appropriateness (de Sousa et al, 2021). We also conducted a PCA analysis using these five conceptual dimensions.…”

A critical incidents analysis – Children's school readiness

“…The categories created in this research will constitute composite variables for sets of items on the Likert-type scale, which respondents will use to estimate their level of agreement with a certain item. Using focus groups prior to questionnaire is a sensible methodological strategy which can encompass numerous gradients of opinion, include new questions which cover the unpredicted dimensions of the studied phenomenon, and eventually prevent the risks or problems that might compromise the quality of the research (de Sousa et al, 2021).…”