A protein sensor with a highly responsive fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) signal for sensing sugars in living Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells was developed by combinatorial engineering of the domain linker and the binding protein moiety. Although FRET sensors based on microbial binding proteins have previously been created for visualizing various sugars in vivo, such sensors are limited due to a weak signal intensity and a narrow dynamic range. In the present study, the length and composition of the linker moiety of a FRET-based sensor consisting of CFP-linker 1 -maltose-binding protein-linker 2 -YFP were redesigned, which resulted in a 10-fold-higher signal intensity. Molecular modeling of the composite linker moieties, including the connecting peptide and terminal regions of the flanking proteins, suggested that an ordered helical structure was preferable for tighter coupling of the conformational change of the binding proteins to the FRET response. When the binding site residue Trp62 of the maltose-binding protein was diversified by saturation mutagenesis, the Leu mutant exhibited an increased binding constant (82 M) accompanied by further improvement in the signal intensity. Finally, the maltose sensor with optimized linkers was redesigned to create a sugar sensor with a new specificity and a wide dynamic range. When the optimized maltose sensors were employed as in vivo sensors, highly responsive FRET images were generated from real-time analysis of maltose uptake of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast).Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a nonradiative energy transfer between donor and acceptor fluorophores in which the signal intensity changes depending on the proximity and relative angular orientation between the fluorophores (15). As such, FRETs between fluorescent proteins with a spectral overlap have been used to investigate spatial and temporal interactions in living cells when they are conjugated to interacting protein pairs (9,18,28). Plus, when a fusion protein consisting of calmodulin and the M13 peptide was flanked by two fluorescent protein variants, the calcium binding to the calmodulin moiety and the consequent affinity to the M13 peptide were found to result in a stronger FRET intensity between the fluorescent proteins (19). Thus, the protein and the improved derivatives have been applied to monitor the calcium concentrations in living cells (1, 13), while various FRET-based sensors have been developed for the detection of cyclic AMP (29), cGMP (11, 24), GTP/GDP (20), inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (25, 27), and infectious enteroviruses (12).The hinge-like twisting and bending motion of bacterial periplasmic binding proteins has also been introduced as an element for FRET-based sensors (7,8). Here, the substrate is located deep within the cleft between the globular N and C lobes, and in the case of substrate binding, the protein undergoes a hinge-like bending motion, causing a change in distance and/or angular orientation between the fluorescent proteins. Maltose-...