Unraveling Heterogeneities in Mindfulness Profiles: a Review and Latent Profile Analysis of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire Short-Form (FFMQ-SF) in the Spanish Population

Abstract

Objectives The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) is one of the most common self-report instruments used in scientific literature to assess mindfulness. However, mixed evidence has been provided regarding its psychometric properties. Among them, the FFMQ seems to present latent classes or profiles with specific patterns in its facets, which might explain said mixed evidence. This study explores mindfulness profiles in the Spanish population using the short form of the FFMQ (FFMQ-SF) and its relations with relevant constructs (i.e., decentering, self-compassion, psychological well-being, psychopathology, positive and negative states). Methods A general population sample of 826 participants completed instruments measuring mindfulness and related constructs. Latent profile analyses were applied to the FFMQ-SF facets, and profile membership of participants was estimated for relations with related constructs. Results Three latent profiles were found: General Mindfulness, Judgmentally Observing, and Non-judgmentally Aware. General Mindfulness showed expected relations with other constructs, but the other two profiles showed some relations opposite to prior literature: The Judgmentally Observing profile displayed functional behaviors while the Non-judgmentally Aware profile showed an inverse mitigated pattern. Results could not be explained by gender, age, level of studies, or minimum experience with meditation. Conclusions Most people (68%) fall into mindfulness profiles that can be regarded as a continuum (e.g., an overall mindfulness factor). However, the FFMQ-SF shows heterogeneities in its facets due to two unique latent profiles, namely “Judgmentally Observing” (7.4%) and “Non-judgmentally Aware” (24.8%). While the structure of these profiles was replicated, relations with relevant psychological constructs contradicted previous literature. Implications and recommendations for future studies are discussed.

Not all mindfulness is equal: certain facets of mindfulness have important implications for well-being and mental health across the lifespan

“…An important aspect of the mindfulness profiles is that they differentially relate to well-being, with some profiles seemingly more adaptive than others. As might be expected, the homogeneous mindfulness profiles (i.e., high mindfulness, moderate mindfulness, low mindfulness ) tend to follow the same pattern of results as variable-centered studies ( Lecuona et al, 2022 ). That is, individuals in the high mindfulness profile have significantly greater well-being as measured by a variety of variables such as happiness, anxiety and depressive symptoms, life satisfaction, and self-regulation than those in the low mindfulness profile ( Suh et al, 2022 ; Wang et al, 2022 ; De Souza Marcovski and Miller, 2023 ).…”

“…Variable-centered analyses (e.g., regression, ANOVA) are largely based on mean scores that are generalized across participants to infer something about a population. Given the heterogeneous results based on mindfulness facets and across different samples in the literature, some scholars have argued that the construct should also be explored using person-centered approaches (e.g., Lilja et al, 2013 ; Pearson et al, 2015 ; Bravo et al, 2016 ; Lecuona et al, 2022 ). Person-centered analyses (e.g., cluster analyses, latent profile analyses) aim to identify subgroups within a given sample.…”

“…A non-judgmentally aware profile is characterized by high scores on the non-judging and acting with awareness facets and low scores on observing. Finally, a judgmentally observing profile typically has high scores on observing and low scores on acting with awareness and non-judging ( Lecuona et al, 2022 ; Wang et al, 2022 ; Carlon et al, 2023 ). These heterogeneous profiles suggest that there is a meaningful differentiation between individuals who score homogeneously on the mindfulness facets and individuals who display divergent patterns of scores across the facets.…”

“…Conversely, those in the judgmentally observing profile had higher levels of depressive and anxious symptoms than the high mindfulness and non-judgmentally aware profiles ( Pearson et al, 2015 ; Bravo et al, 2016 ; Leach et al, 2021 ; De Souza Marcovski and Miller, 2023 ). Yet, the patterns of results for these heterogeneous profiles are not always unequivocal ( Lecuona et al, 2022 ). For example, Sahdra et al (2017) found that the non-judgmentally aware profile had nearly identical levels of life satisfaction than the judgmentally observing profile.…”

Dispositional Mindfulness and Self-Compassion Buffer the Effects of COVID-19 Stress on Depression and Anxiety Symptoms

“…It is plausible that a measure that fails to capture a general mindfulness factor driving scores on individual facets—as demonstrated by the FFMQ-15 in Study 1—is also unlikely to demonstrate moderation. In a recent study employing latent profile analysis, researchers found only 68% of respondents completing the short form of the FFMQ demonstrated a “general mindfulness” profile (Lecuona et al, 2022 ). Two other respondent profiles emerged, including a "Non-judgementally Aware” profile (24.8%), typified by a non-discerning form of awareness which does not fit a typical high mindfulness profile, and a “Judgmentally Observing” profile (7.4%).…”