“…Empirical studies on racial and ethnic disparities in police-citizen contact are quite broad yet relatively consistent in their findings. Via semi-structured interviews and ethnographies, such studies indicate that minority citizens frequently report being stopped and searched by police and discuss direct and indirect experiences with policing actions they view as bias-based (Campos-Manzo et al, 2020; Gau & Brunson, 2010, 2015; Rios, 2011; Stuart, 2016; Weitzer, 2000). In addition, via the use of officially recorded stop, search, and arrest statistics, researchers have evaluated the presence and prevalence of racial and ethnic disproportionality in various cities and states (Alpert et al, 2005, 2007; Engel et al, 2002; Engel & Johnson, 2006; Headley et al, 2020; Kamalu, 2016; Kochel et al, 2011; Moon & Corley, 2007; Roh & Robinson, 2009; Warren et al, 2006).…”