Universal development of emotion categories in natural language.

Abstract

(1987) found that English emotion words fall into 25 categories of synonyms. To find emotion nomenclature universals, the authors used P. Shaver et al.'s taxonomy in a sample of the world's languages and found that emotion categories were added in most languages in a relatively similar generalized sequence. Labeled first were the categories of anger and guilt; followed in Stage 2 by adoration, alarm, amusement, and depression; in Stage 3 by alienation, arousal, and agony; and ending with eagerness in Stage 4. The remaining 5 stages were derivatives of Stages 1-4. Thus, in the folk taxonomy, Stages 1-4 are basic linguistic emotion categories. Motives for labeling emotions were driven possibly by the need to maintain social control, the identification of prototypical emotions elicited in interpersonal relationships, and the need for terms to identify intrapersonal emotions. Features of markedness theory were corroborated for English emotion terms. Which categories of emotions, such as anger, fear, joy, and sadness, were labeled first, second, third, and so on? Was the encoding sequence similar in all languages, perhaps because a limited set of fundamental panhuman experiences or crises served as the fountainhead in all cultures for the encoding of emotion terms? Or was the labeling of emotions random, with each culture encoding different shades of feeling? The purpose of this study was to explore whether the sequence of naming emotion categories was uniform across cultures, and if so, what may have been the motivation for the particular naming sequence. We begin with a listing of human universals and then address some objections to the search for universals in the emotion lexicon, particularly when the search involves the use of dictionaries. In addition, we explore potential motives for naming emotions before describing our methodology. Human Universals The identification of universals-the search in the 20th century for the common denominator of cultures or human nature-began

Pancultural nostalgia: Prototypical conceptions across cultures.

“…Given the complex blend of affective states involved in nostalgia, this is a challenging yet promising avenue for research. Similar challenges come into play when studying facial expressions of emotions commonly accepted as universal and adaptive, such as jealousy and love (Edelstein & Shaver, 2007;Hupka et al, 1999;Sabini & Silver, 2005). Like these emotions, nostalgic expressions may be more recognizable when dynamic (e.g., gazing into space followed by a sigh and a smile) or accompanied by contextual cues (e.g., an old photo).…”

“…In this respect, nostalgia enhances two vital resources: initiative (agency) and social relationships (communion). Further research could examine whether nostalgia functions primarily to regulate internal states (i.e., an ego-focused emotion) or social behavior (i.e., a social control emotion; Hupka, Lenton, & Hutchison, 1999;Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Moreover, research should examine the extent to which the emotional experience and functions of nostalgia generalize across cultures.…”

Variation within Universals

“…This shortcoming is particularly obvious in comparison with other disciplines concerned with the study of emotion, where larger-scale studies considering evidence from many languages are much more common (e.g. Fontaine et al, in press;Hupka et al, 1999 ).…”

Emotion Representation and Perception Across Cultures

“…Despite these claims, Hupka et al believe that these assertions should not be cited as evidence that there are no universal categories of emotions and that the use of dictionaries falsely assumes translation equivalence. Hupka et al (1999) attempted to establish whether the naming of emotion categories evolved in a similar sequence across languages and to determine what may have been the motivation for the naming of the initial stages. The researchers used foreign dictionaries to establish whether an English emotion category had an equivalent term in the other languages.…”

“…Culture and social restraints and influences may cause this emotion to be expressed somewhat differently across cultures, but it is still linked to sadness and reflects a negative affect across all of the cultures studied. Hupka, Lenton, and Hutchison (1999) sought to claim that human universals are present for emotion words and emotion lexicons. They stated that universals have been demonstrated in natural language in semantics, phonology, grammar, and so on.…”