Universal and variable leadership dimensions across human societies

Pandemic Leadership: Sex Differences and Their Evolutionary–Developmental Origins

“…It is highly likely that men and women differ with regard to the fitness-related benefits and costs associated with positions of leadership—and that this difference is caused and/or mediated by sex differences in (1) parental investment, (2) age-related fertility decline, (3) mate preferences, (4) reproductive physiology, (5) reproductive ecology, and (6) sexual and reproductive decision-making ( Trivers, 1972 ; Valeggia and Núñez-de la Mora, 2015 ; Sweet-Cushman, 2016 ; García et al, 2018 ; Archer, 2019 ; Buss and Schmitt, 2019 ; Luoto, 2019 ; Hughes et al, 2021 ). Evolutionary theory supports the view that men are able to derive significant reproductive benefits from politically ambitious behavior, while fewer benefits accrue to women from similar behaviors ( Sweet-Cushman, 2016 ; see also von Rueden et al, 2011 ; Buss and Schmitt, 2019 ; Garfield et al, 2020 ). Women who try to use resources and status to attract multiple mates are not distinctly favored by natural selection, whereas men are ( Geary, 2010 ; von Rueden et al, 2011 ; Sweet-Cushman, 2016 ; Luoto, 2019 ) 10 .…”

“…Of the 76 non-human mammal species, female-biased leadership was reported only in eight species: (1) bonobos ( Pan paniscus ), (2) ring-tailed lemurs ( Lemur catta ), (3) black-and-white ruffed lemurs ( Varecia variegata ), (4) killer whales ( Orcinus orca ), (5) spotted hyenas ( Crocuta crocuta ), (6) African lions ( Panthera leo ), (7) African bush elephants ( Loxodonta africana ), and (8) Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ). Male-biased leadership therefore is the most typical across the mammalian lineage ( Smith et al, 2020 ), including humans, both in large-scale post-industrial societies as well as more egalitarian, small-scale societies ( Garfield et al, 2020 ).…”

“…The evidence we have reviewed suggests this might be the case with sexually dimorphic leadership specialization, though it would be necessary to establish the kinds of fitness benefits (and costs) that women accrue from positions of leadership (cf. Sweet-Cushman, 2016 ; Garfield et al, 2020 ). There is existing research on the fitness benefits of leadership for male leaders, namely more in-pair surviving offspring as well as more extra-marital affairs and higher wife quality ( von Rueden et al, 2011 ; von Rueden and Jaeggi, 2016 ; Spisak, 2020 ).…”

The Bottleneck Metaphor of Leadership Culture: How Shared Understandings About Leadership Develop in Groups and Impede Diversity and Effectiveness of Leaders

“…However, they may have become obsolete in modern conditions (van Vugt et al, 2008). Alternatively, some evidence shows that instead of evolution, these might be the products of modernity and produced by cultural evolution after the advent of agriculture and large-scale societies (Garfield et al, 2020). In one way or another, today's business and work environments are too fast-paced, uncertain, and complicated for groups to trust and depend on a few persons' abilities and goodwill (Rodriguez and Rodriguez, 2015;Bawany, 2016).…”

“…Before the private ownership concept, there was no mechanism to coerce individuals to obey authority except physical force. People would simply leave the area to hunt and gather resources in other areas instead of tolerating dominance efforts plaguing a place (Garfield et al, 2020). However, the agricultural revolution introduced the concept of controlled access to resources, thus rendering domination to be possible.…”