“…Screening and further characterization have shown that increased or decreased expression level of RSPO2 has been associated with the development and progression of other types of cancer such as tongue squamous cell carcinoma, 86 pituitary adenoma, 87 ovary cancer, 88 and nasopharyngeal carcinoma 89 following the different involved molecular mechanisms and pathways.…”
“…Screening and further characterization have shown that increased or decreased expression level of RSPO2 has been associated with the development and progression of other types of cancer such as tongue squamous cell carcinoma, 86 pituitary adenoma, 87 ovary cancer, 88 and nasopharyngeal carcinoma 89 following the different involved molecular mechanisms and pathways.…”
“…The research of Al-Samadi et al. indicated that RSPO2 enhanced cancer progression by enriching LGR5 + stem cells, and also suppressed cancer progression by restraining the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, thereby reducing cancer cell proliferation and metastasis [ 69 ].…”
Section: Molecular Mechanism Of Rspos Involved In Tumor Progressionmentioning
The R-spondin protein family comprises four members (RSPO1-4), which are agonists of the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Emerging evidence revealed that RSPOs should not only be viewed as agonists of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway but also as regulators for tumor development and progression. Aberrant expression of RSPOs is related to tumorigenesis and tumor development in multiple cancers and their expression of RSPOs has also been correlated with anticancer immune cell signatures. More importantly, the role of RSPOs as potential target therapies and their implication in cancer progressions has been studied in the preclinical and clinical settings. These findings highlight the possible therapeutic value of RSPOs in cancer medicine. However, the expression pattern, effects, and mechanisms of RSPO proteins in cancer remain elusive. Investigating the many roles of RSPOs is likely to expand and improve our understanding of the oncogenic mechanisms mediated by RSPOs. Here, we reviewed the recent advances in the functions and underlying molecular mechanisms of RSPOs in tumor development, cancer microenvironment regulation, and immunity, and discussed the therapeutic potential of targeting RSPOs for cancer treatment. In addition, we also explored the biological feature and clinical relevance of RSPOs in cancer mutagenesis, transcriptional regulation, and immune correlation by bioinformatics analysis.
KEY MESSAGES
Aberrant expressions of RSPOs are detected in various human malignancies and are always correlated with oncogenesis.
Although extensive studies of RSPOs have been conducted, their precise molecular mechanism remains poorly understood.
Bioinformatic analysis revealed that RSPOs may play a part in the development of the immune composition of the tumor microenvironment.
“…LGR4 exerts an influence on the progression of tongue squamous cell carcinoma [115,116]. It has been shown that both LGR4 and its ligand RSPO2 are over-expressed in tongue carcinoma.…”
Section: Oral Cancermentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Oral cancer represents the seventeenth most common cancer among both sexes all over the world and fourteenth cancer in terms of mortality [ 108 ]. LGR4 exerts an influence on the progression of tongue squamous cell carcinoma [ 115 , 116 ]. It has been shown that both LGR4 and its ligand RSPO2 are over-expressed in tongue carcinoma.…”
Leucine-rich repeats containing G protein-coupled receptor 4 (LGR4) is a receptor that belongs to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors that can be activated by R-spondins (RSPOs), Norrin, circLGR4, and the ligand of the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B (RANKL) ligands to regulate signaling pathways in normal and pathological processes. LGR4 is widely expressed in different tissues where it has multiple functions such as tissue development and maintenance. LGR4 mainly acts through the Wnt/β-catenin pathway to regulate proliferation, survival, and differentiation. In cancer, LGR4 participates in tumor progression, invasion, and metastasis. Furthermore, recent evidence reveals that LGR4 is essential for the regulation of the cancer stem cell population by controlling self-renewal and regulating stem cell properties. This review summarizes the function of LGR4 and its ligands in normal and malignant processes.
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