Understanding the Role of Sex in Heart Valve and Major Vascular Diseases

Abstract

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the major cause of mortality in the elderly population. The cost of CVD treatment and surgeries was over $300 billion in the United States alone in 2010, making this disorder a critical healthcare issue. Many studies have suggested sex as a risk factor for heart valve and major vascular diseases, such as aortic valve stenosis, mitral prolapse and regurgitation, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, and abdominal aortic aneurysm. Unfortunately, only a handful of studies have illustrated the role of sex in the etiology and progression of these disorders. Moreover, knowledge of biomolecular factors that affect these diseases in men and women is very limited. Numerous clinical studies have revealed obvious differences in the prevalence of these diseases between the sexes. These reports were supported by a few molecular and cellular physiology studies that associated this difference to sex and sex hormones. In particular, male sex has commonly been identified as a risk factor for majority of heart valve and vascular diseases, whereas females have been identified as higher risk for certain disorders as well. In addition, menopause is a critical issue that turns the tables against women and enhances complications in their cardiovascular structure due to hormonal change. In this review, major vascular and heart valve diseases for which sex is associated as a risk factor have been reviewed to highlight the importance of this risk factor in CVDs.

Prevalence of cardiovascular disease among Bangladeshi adult population: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the studies

“…Although initial overall tests for heterogeneity based on gender of the study participants were nonsignificant ( p =0.881), gender differences existed in CVD prevalence due to differences in genetic and psychosocial risk factors in men and women. 30 – 32 As such, a subgroup analysis according to the gender of the study participants was performed to explore any possible differences in CVD prevalence ( Figure 3 ). Weighted pooled prevalence of CVD was the same in both females (3% [95% CI: 1%–7%]) and males (3% [95% CI: 1%–6%]).…”

Association of diabetes mellitus with decline in ankle-brachial index among patients on hemodialysis: A 6-year follow-up study

“…Male sex is a known risk factor for most heart valve and vascular diseases, whereas females are known to be at higher risk of other disorders [46]. Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death and disability in both men and women worldwide, but affect more women than men.…”

“…Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death and disability in both men and women worldwide, but affect more women than men. Cardiovascular diseases are mostly caused by traditional risk factors, and whereas the effects of high blood pressure, overweight and obesity, and high cholesterol levels on cardiovascular outcomes are generally similar between men and women, the risk incurred by diabetes is significantly higher in women than in men [46,47]. Menopause plays a vital role in this difference, as it leads to adverse changes in cardiovascular structure due to hormonal changes.…”

In‐vitro analysis of early calcification in aortic valvular interstitial cells using Laser‐Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS)

“…Typically computer tomography (CT) and echocardiography are used as the dominant tools for clinical diagnosis of CAVD in patients . For direct evaluation of aortic valve calcification for research purposes, various techniques have been developed to measure the calcium deposition in VICs or valve tissue sections on a laboratory platform.…”