Understanding the Phagocytosis of Particles: the Key for Rational Design of Vaccines and Therapeutics

Endocytosis-mediated redistribution of antibiotics targets intracellular bacteria

“…The cellular uptake of large particles (>500 nm) is performed only via the endocytic pathways of phagocytosis and/or macropinocytosis, while the other endocytic processes are limited in terms of particle size (maximum size of 150–300 nm). 34 Polystyrene microspheres with 2–3 μm size showed the greatest extent of phagocytosis and adhesion; however, they had no significant effect on the internalization rate. 37 Nanoparticle size only mediated the initial step of phagocytosis (recognition and adhesion), not determining the internalization process.…”

“…Phagocytosis mainly encompasses the internalization of large particles above 500 nm and is only performed by specialized cells, including macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells, etc . 34 Pinocytosis is the general process of fluid-phase uptake by a cell and can be further divided into macropinocytosis, clathrin-mediated endocytosis, caveolin-mediated endocytosis, and clathrin/caveolae independent endocytosis, based on the majority of the literature. 35 The biological and physicochemical properties of the nanoparticle can be tailored for targeted delivery or triggered release of the cargo, resulting in enhanced therapeutic efficacy.…”

The Role of Mucoadhesion and Mucopenetration in the Immune Response Induced by Polymer-Based Mucosal Adjuvants

“…The performance of these particles as adjuvants is usually determined by their intrinsic characteristics, such as size [ 52 , 53 , 54 ], shape [ 55 , 56 ], surface charge [ 57 ], and hydrophobicity [ 58 , 59 ], and also are influenced by the methods used for antigen loading [ 60 ], the density of antigen on the surface [ 61 ], the ability of controlled-release kinetics [ 62 ], functionalization [ 63 , 64 , 65 ], and importantly mucoadhesion [ 66 , 67 ]. In many cases, particulate vaccine adjuvants mimic the size, shape, and surface molecule organization of pathogenic microorganisms and can contain molecules such as pathogen-associated molecular patterns, which directly impact the recognition, interaction, phagocytosis, and processing of antigens by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), affecting vaccine efficacy [ 68 , 69 , 70 ].…”

phaA New perspective: How Pathogens Manipulate Phagocytosis?

“…Pathogenic microorganisms, for the avoidance of phagocytosis, use the most effective method of escaping their destructive force to simply prevent ingestion (17). Klebsiella pneumoniae is an opportunistic pathogen that primarily affects immunocompromised patients (18), but a few serotypes (particularly K1 and K2) are highly invasive and can cause systemic infection in otherwise healthy individuals (19).…”