Understanding the Biology and Immune Pathogenesis of Chikungunya Virus Infection for Diagnostic and Vaccine Development

Abstract

Chikungunya virus, the causative agent of chikungunya fever, is generally characterized by the sudden onset of symptoms, including fever, rash, myalgia, and headache. In some patients, acute chikungunya virus infection progresses to severe and chronic arthralgia that persists for years. Chikungunya infection is more commonly identified in tropical and subtropical regions. However, recent expansions and epidemics in the temperate regions have raised concerns about the future public health impact of chikungunya diseases. Several underlying factors have likely contributed to the recent re-emergence of chikungunya infection, including urbanization, human travel, viral adaptation to mosquito vectors, lack of effective control measures, and the spread of mosquito vectors to new regions. However, the true burden of chikungunya disease is most likely to be underestimated, particularly in developing countries, due to the lack of standard diagnostic assays and clinical manifestations overlapping with those of other endemic viral infections in the regions. Additionally, there have been no chikungunya vaccines available to prevent the infection. Thus, it is important to update our understanding of the immunopathogenesis of chikungunya infection, its clinical manifestations, the diagnosis, and the development of chikungunya vaccines.

Antiviral Protein–Protein Interaction Inhibitors

“…212 Currently, there is no vaccine or specific treatment for CHIKV; nonetheless, some potential vaccines are in clinical trials and on their way to approval, such as live-attenuated VLA1553. 213,214 CHIKV enters host cells through pH-dependent receptormediated endocytosis. The viral glycoproteins E1 and E2 form heterodimeric spikes on their surfaces, with the former participating in membrane fusion and the latter interacting directly with host factors.…”

“…While it is not deadly to otherwise healthy individuals, it can become chronic and significantly lower the quality of life . Currently, there is no vaccine or specific treatment for CHIKV; nonetheless, some potential vaccines are in clinical trials and on their way to approval, such as live-attenuated VLA1553. , …”

“… 212 Currently, there is no vaccine or specific treatment for CHIKV; nonetheless, some potential vaccines are in clinical trials and on their way to approval, such as live-attenuated VLA1553. 213 , 214 …”

Chikungunya Virus Vaccine: An Update Review

“…Research in Mexico and Brazil reveals numerous mutations and distinct lineages, complicating vaccine design [112]. During the CHIKV virus outbreak in Mexico from 2014 to 2016, extensive genetic variability was observed, revealing 70 non-synonymous mutations in the NSP3, E1, and E2 genes [112,113]. Understanding the spread dynamics and evolutionary history is crucial for developing effective vaccines that can combat the diverse strains of CHIKV [114,115].…”

“…The complex immune responses to CHIKV, safety concerns, regulatory hurdles, and the virus's RNA nature further complicate vaccine development [17,116]. Limited understanding of the required long-term immune response, high costs, resource limitations, and challenges in clinical trials add to the difficulties [113,116,117]. Ensuring the safety of CHIKV vaccines, especially in vulnerable populations, is a crucial aspect of vaccine research.…”