Understanding Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Profiles of Salmonella Biofilm and Planktonic Bacteria Challenged with Disinfectants Commonly Used During Poultry Processing

Abstract

Foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella that survive cleaning and disinfection during poultry processing are a public health concern because pathogens that survive disinfectants have greater potential to exhibit resistance to antibiotics and disinfectants after their initial disinfectant challenge. While the mechanisms conferring antimicrobial resistance (AMR) after exposure to disinfectants is complex, understanding the effects of disinfectants on Salmonella in both their planktonic and biofilm states is becoming increasingly important, as AMR and disinfectant tolerant bacteria are becoming more prevalent in the food chain. This review examines the modes of action of various types of disinfectants commonly used during poultry processing (quaternary ammonium, organic acids, chlorine, alkaline detergents) and the mechanisms that may confer tolerance to disinfectants and cross-protection to antibiotics. The goal of this review article is to characterize the AMR profiles of Salmonella in both their planktonic and biofilm state that have been challenged with hexadecylpyridinium chloride (HDP), peracetic acid (PAA), sodium hypochlorite (SHY) and trisodium phosphate (TSP) in order to understand the risk of these disinfectants inducing AMR in surviving bacteria that may enter the food chain.

Assessment of Performance of Two Rapid Methods for On-Site Control of Microbial and Biofilm Contamination

“…Confirmation of the presence of a microbial biofilm usually requires microscopic techniques, which are not useful for routine controls. In the past few years, there has been growing interest in the use of dye-based reagents to stain the biofilm matrix and thus reveal their presence [18]. Among these, TBF ® 300 (Betelgeux-Christeyns, Valencia, Spain) has been available in the market since 2011 as a rapid tool for specific identification of biofilms [18,19].…”

“…In the past few years, there has been growing interest in the use of dye-based reagents to stain the biofilm matrix and thus reveal their presence [18]. Among these, TBF ® 300 (Betelgeux-Christeyns, Valencia, Spain) has been available in the market since 2011 as a rapid tool for specific identification of biofilms [18,19]. TBF ® 300 is based on Rhodamine B as a staining agent, which is a counterstaining dye and is reported to reveal the total extent of biomass, independent of its activity [20].…”

Atypical Non-H2S-Producing Monophasic Salmonella Typhimurium ST3478 Strains from Chicken Meat at Processing Stage Are Adapted to Diverse Stresses

“…However, our results by both approaches (with and without an adjusted pH) showed that in-use concentrations of PAA could, in certain conditions, be ineffective against Salmonella strains, since MIC/MBC were included in the range of the suggested concentrations for disinfection products applied in the food and feed area (20–3000mg/L for Product-Type PT 4) [ 54 ]. Moreover, besides the biocide concentration, other factors should also be considered regarding the use of disinfectants at food processing plants, like the presence of a high load of organic material and the presence of bacterial biofilms, since these factors might contribute to the persistence of sub-inhibitory concentrations and thus co-select the target pathogens or other relevant bacteria [ 55 ].…”

Thyme Oil Enhances the Inactivation of Salmonella enterica on Raw Chicken Breast Meat During Marination in Lemon Juice With Added Yucca schidigera Extract

“…These results are not surprising considering the fact that bacteria attached to surfaces are more tolerant to antimicrobial agents compared to planktonic bacteria ( 45 ). For example, Salmonella cells attached to surfaces exhibited far more resistance than planktonic cells to disinfectants used during poultry processing ( 46 ). Moreover, the increased resistance of the attached cells may be partly attributed to the protective effect that the chicken breast offers S. enterica .…”