Understanding and building clean(er) sport together: Community-based participatory research with elite athletes and anti-doping organisations from five European countries

Abstract

Background:In sport the narrative is changing from anti-doping to pro-clean sport. Yet, our understanding of what 'clean sport' means to athletes is notably absent from the literature.Objectives: Working together with elite athletes and National Anti-Doping Organisations (NADOs), this study explored the meaning and importance of 'clean sport' and 'clean athlete identity'. Design: Community-based participatory research design was employed to explore (a) how elite athletes define clean sport and being a clean athlete; (b) the hopes and challenges associated with clean sport and being a clean athlete; and (c) what can be done in anti-doping to elicit clean sport.Methods: Five elite athletes in five European countries (Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Slovenia and United Kingdom) were recruited as co-researchers by their respective NADOs, trained for their role as co-researchers and individually interviewed. Seventy-seven elite athletes were then purposefully recruited for 12 athlete-led national focus groups. Finally, the five athlete coresearchers and five athlete participants took part in one 2.5-hour long international focus group. Results: Reflexive thematic analysis resulted in generating four overarching themes: 'clean is being true to the self', 'clean performance enhancement has multiple meanings', 'clean is not a solo act' and 'the problems and solutions are systemic'. Collectively, the themes showed that the clean athlete identity is generally rooted in upbringing, early experiences and love of sport; and characterised by continued, intrinsically motivated commitment to fundamental values and morals acquired in childhood. In contrast, the concept of clean performance-enhancement is highly idiosyncratic and flexible. Elite athletes value anti-doping efforts but their experiences of disparity and unfairness in doping control undermine their trust in anti-doping. Conclusion:Clean athlete identity is a social endeavour and artefact, which needs to be reflected in and developed through evidence-informed anti-doping interventions. Raising athletes' voices via co-collaboration and participatory research can be an enriching experience for athletes and researchers alike, and a worthwhile endeavour for sport organisations with responsibility for anti-doping. To make anti-doping education personally relevant, the richness of individual interpretation of 'clean' for the self (i.e., clean athlete identity) and performance-enhancement must be acknowledged, respected and cultivated.

Racing Clean in a Tainted World: A Qualitative Exploration of the Experiences and Views of Clean British Elite Distance Runners on Doping and Anti-Doping

“…The athletes presented a high level of intrinsic motivation, with a desire to test their natural limits being a primary driving force. The participants' commitment to clean sport appears to derive from the values and morals they were raised with, and this finding is consistent with previous research (MacNamara and Collins, 2014 ; Erickson et al, 2015 ; Petroczi et al, 2021 ). Another factor contributing to participants' clean sport attitudes appears to be the sporting environment in the UK, which they felt strongly discouraged doping.…”

“…Personal ethical standards, anticipated feelings of shame and guilt, and the influence of significant others, are instead the main factors that athletes point to when questioned on why they do not used prohibited means (Bloodworth and McNamee, 2010 ; MacNamara and Collins, 2014 ). Motives for clean sport behaviour are driven by values and early childhood experiences, viewing doping as cheating and a threat to the sport they love, as well as valuing authenticity and long-term health (Overbye et al, 2013 ; Lazuras et al, 2017 ; Whitaker et al, 2017 ; Kegelaers et al, 2018 ; Petroczi et al, 2021 ).…”

“…Losing out on medals, opportunities and sponsorship deals are one aspect that clean athletes deal with. Lost opportunities may not apply directly to all but altered personal goals about what they felt was achievable is present in clean athletes' lives (Petroczi et al, 2021 ).…”

One Does Not Fit All: European Study Shows Significant Differences in Value-Priorities in Clean Sport

“…Athletes who follow clean sport behavior link “clean sport” definition to fairness and rule-following (Petróczi et al, 2021 ). They intuitively feel that clean sport is about the timeless positive values often referred to as the Spirit of Sport, but essentially it is the moral make-up they acquired growing up where there is no room for cheating.…”

“…However, the values of the spirit of amateur sport such as joy, teamwork, and playing with honesty (WADA, 2021a ) may become less salient or re-constructed (Maftei et al, 2019 ) at the level where sport transforms to be the pursuit of better, faster, and stronger. What constitutes clean performance enhancement within the rule-following clean sport behavior, however, is highly idiosyncratic and underpinned by values important to the athletes personally (Petróczi et al, 2021 ). Mazanov and Huybers ( 2015 ) unearthed differences in the perceived importance of the Spirit of Sport values between the general public, amateur, and elite athletes.…”