Ultrasound-Based Technologies for the Evaluation of Testicles in the Dog: Keystones and Breakthroughs

Abstract

Ultrasonography is a valuable diagnostic tool extensively used in the andrology of human and domestic animals, including dogs. This review aims to provide an overview of various technologies based on ultrasound, from the basic B-Mode ultrasonography to the more recent advancements, such as contrast-enhanced ultrasonography (CEUS) and ultrasound elastography (UEl), all of which are utilized in the evaluation of canine testicles. The review outlines the principles behind each of these technologies and discusses their application in assessing normal and abnormal testicular conditions. B-mode canine testicular ultrasonography primarily focuses on detecting focal lesions but has limitations in terms of objectivity. Other technologies, including Doppler ultrasonography, B-Flow, and CEUS, allow for the characterization of vascular patterns, which could be further measured using specific applications like spectral Doppler or quantitative CEUS. Additionally, ultrasound elastography enables the assessment of parenchyma stiffness both qualitatively and quantitatively. These ultrasound-based technologies play a crucial role in andrology by providing valuable information for evaluating testicular function and integrity, aiding in the identification of pathological conditions that may impact the health and quality of life of male dogs.

Assessment of testicular stiffness in fertile dogs with shear wave elastography techniques: a pilot study

“…Although correlations between semen parameters and prostatic and testicular volumes were previously reported (45)(46)(47), in our study there were no correlations between testicular volume and total sperm count, between testicular volume and sperm motility, or between prostatic volume and total sperm count. However, this discrepancy could be due to the limited number of dogs evaluated, that could have affected the power of the statistical analysis.…”

Ultrasonography of Testicular Maturation and Correlation with Body Growth and Semen Evaluation in Beagle Dog Model

“…According to Evans et al [ 3 ], the typical size dimensions of a mature testis are around 3 cm (major axis) to 2 cm (minor axis) in an 11 kg dog. However, the significant variation in canine body weight across breeds leads to a wide range of testicular sizes within this species [ 1 ]. For the Beagle breed, Gouletsou et al [ 10 ] found a mean volume of 9.5 cm 3 , whilst in a later study the same research group [ 41 ] reported a mean testicular volume of 8.3 cm 3 , with both findings in concordance with those of the present study.…”

“…Ultrasonographic (US) imaging is a valuable diagnostic technique, widely employed in the study of the male reproductive system in humans and domestic animals [ 1 ]. It is easy to use, non-invasive, quick to perform, and less costly compared to other imaging techniques like magnetic resonance or computed tomography [ 2 ].…”

“…Histologically, puberty has been defined when spermatozoa can be detected in the seminiferous tubules and epididymis [ 27 ]. The testis has been evaluated ultrasonographically by the evaluation of grayscale intensity [ 28 ], which has been repeatedly described to be a valuable tool for the breeding soundness evaluation in dogs [ 1 , 7 , 29 ]. The testis consists of the connective tissue framework, called stroma, and the parenchyma, which comprises the seminiferous tubules.…”

Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS) Evaluation of Canine Prostatic Hyperplasia before and after Osaterone Acetate Therapy: Preliminary Results

“…The application of CEUS for the evaluation of ovarian activity [ 28 ] and pregnancy [ 29 , 30 ], but also during pyometra [ 31 , 32 ], has been described in the bitch. For male dogs, there are several studies on both healthy [ 33 ] and pathological testes [ 34 , 35 , 36 ]; furthermore, some studies have been published on the prostate in healthy [ 37 , 38 , 39 ], neutered [ 40 ], and pathological animals [ 22 , 37 , 41 , 42 , 43 ].…”