Typologies of Secularism in China: Religion, Superstition, and Secularization

Abstract

This article examines four typologies of secularism in China from the sixteenth century onward, through an analysis of the triadic relationship between the secular, religious, and superstitious. These notions have been considered to be derived from the particular intellectual and political history of the West, but this fails to grasp the complexity of non-Western belief systems. This article proposes to instead examine how Chinese policymakers and intellectuals actively fabricated religion and produced secularization. It goes beyond a simple rebuttal of Eurocentrism, and arguments regarding the mutual incomparability of Western and Chinese experiences of secularization. It distinguishes four typologies of secularism that emerged successively in China: (1) the reduction of Christianity from the sixteenth century to the 1900s; (2) the Confucian secular and (3) atheist secular that were conceptualized, respectively, by royalist reformers and anti-Manchu revolutionaries during the final two decades of the Qing Dynasty; and (4) the interventionist secularism pursued by the Republican and the Communist regimes to strictly supervise and regulate religious beliefs and practices. The paper argues that, if secularization is indeed Christian in nature, secularism and religion were not imposed in China under Western cultural and political hegemony. Instead, the Christian secular model was produced in China mainly via pre-existing cultural norms and the state’s ad hoc political needs, making the Christian secularism itself a multipolar phenomenon.

Folk religion as the “life-world”: revival of folk beliefs and renewal of religious categorization in contemporary China

“…It suggests that folk religion did not have much independence even before the arrival of Christianity. Xu's study on typologies of secularism in China regarding superstition, religion and secularization shows the complexity of non-Western belief systems (Xu 2023). Secondly, folk religion was gradually conceptualized as a subject; that is, just as the concept of religion was formed after the entry of Christian missionaries into China.…”