Typhoon eye effect versus ripple effect: the role of family size on mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan

Abstract

Background The recent outbreak of COVID-19 has impacted adversely upon the mental health of millions of people worldwide. Impacts on the mental health conditions and the associated predictors relating to adults in Pakistan, the fifth most populous country in the world, during the COVID-19 remain understudied. Our aim was to investigate distress, anxiety, and overall mental health and their associated predictors among Pakistani adults in this pandemic. We specifically examine mental health issues based on the distance from the epicenter, (a predictor that has revealed opposing evidence in other countries) based on the theories of typhoon eye effect and ripple effect. The sample consisted of 601 adults who were surveyed online about 2.5 months into the outbreak across Pakistan with varying distances from the epicenter of COVID-19 of Karachi. Results The results showed that 9.2 and 19.0% of the participants surpassed the cut-off criteria for distress and anxiety disorders, respectively. Overall, the distance from the epicenter positively predicted the mental health of adults in Pakistan, and family size negatively moderated this effect. The distance from the epicenter negatively predicted distress and anxiety disorders for adults in large families, which are quite common in Pakistan. Conclusion The evidence of the study interestingly finds that the prediction of the mental health of people by their distance from the epicenter depends on family size. The evidence of this study can help to provide initial indicators for mental health care providers to screen vulnerable groups in Pakistan, a populous country that continues struggling to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic.

A Comparative Study on the Psychological Health of Frontline Health Workers in Wuhan Under and After the Lockdown

“…A multinational, multicenter study showed that the prevalence of psychological adversity among HWs seems to be predicted by the HWs' medical history and whether they had physical COVID-19 symptoms, while being independent of the burden of COVID-19 cases within each country (38). There is extensive literature regarding the various factors related to mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic such as being single, separated, or widowed; a higher education level (39); a larger family size; loss of job; physical symptoms (40); and being in contact with potential COVID-19 patients were all associated with an increased level of depression, stress, and anxiety (41)(42)(43). Social distancing, being female, having chronic conditions, and living in the family with three to five members were associated with lower HRQOL scores (44).…”

Predictors of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms in Brazil during COVID-19

“…Since the beginning of 2020, the pandemic has had a great impact on the normal life of people in Latin America [ 2 , 3 , 4 ], including its largest country Brazil [ 5 , 6 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic not only threatens people’s health but also impacts on the mental health of the public [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. On the one hand, the uncertainty of the initial route of transmission and treatment has exacerbated people’s fear during the COVID-19 crisis [ 11 ].…”

“…On the other hand, the social distancing and confinement measures during the COVID-19 pandemic can lead to symptoms of anxiety and depression [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Although several studies have documented high prevalence rates of mental health symptoms in various parts of the world, especially in China [ 8 , 18 , 19 , 20 ], and early evidence of the mental impact of COVID-19 in Brazil was reported in a timely manner [ 21 ], there are few evidence-based studies containing critical predictors of mental issues in adults under a full-on COVID-19 outbreak in Brazil. As the devastating COVID-19 crisis continues in Brazil, it is crucial and urgent to investigate the risk factors for mental health issues in Brazilian adults.…”

Predictors of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms in Brazil during COVID-19

“…Since the beginning of 2020, the pandemic has had a great impact on the normal life of people in Latin America [2][3][4], including its largest country Brazil [5,6]. The COVID-19 pandemic not only threatens people's health but also impacts on the mental health of the public [7][8][9][10]. On the one hand, the uncertainty of the initial route of transmission and treatment has exacerbated people's fear during the COVID-19 crisis [11].…”

“…On the other hand, the social distancing and confinement measures during the COVID-19 pandemic can lead to symptoms of anxiety and depression [12][13][14][15][16][17]. Although several studies have documented high prevalence rates of mental health symptoms in various parts of the world, especially in China [8,[18][19][20], and early evidence of the mental impact of COVID-19 in Brazil was reported in a timely manner [21], there are few evidence-based studies containing critical predictors of mental issues in adults under a full-on COVID-19 outbreak in Brazil. As the devastating COVID-19 crisis continues in Brazil, it is crucial and urgent to investigate the risk factors for mental health issues in Brazilian adults.…”