Type B Trichothecenes in Cereal Grains and Their Products: Recent Advances on Occurrence, Toxicology, Analysis and Post-Harvest Decontamination Strategies

Abstract

Type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol) and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3G) are secondary toxic metabolites produced mainly by mycotoxigenic Fusarium fungi and have been recognized as natural contaminants in cereals and cereal-based foods. The latest studies have proven the various negative effects of type B trichothecenes on human health. Due to the widespread occurrence of Fusarium species, contamination by these mycotoxins has become an important aspect for public health and agro-food systems worldwide. Hence, their monitoring and surveillance in various foods have received a significant deal of attention in recent years. In this review, an up-to-date overview of the occurrence profile of major type B trichothecenes and DON-3G in cereal grains and their toxicological implications are outlined. Furthermore, current trends in analytical methodologies for their determination are overviewed. This review also covers the factors affecting the production of these mycotoxins, as well as the management strategies currently employed to mitigate their contamination in foods. Information presented in this review provides good insight into the progress that has been achieved in the last years for monitoring type B trichothecenes and DON-3G, and also would help the researchers in their further investigations on metabolic pathway analysis and toxicological studies of these Fusarium mycotoxins.

The characteristics, occurrence, and toxicological effects of alternariol: a mycotoxin

“…Environmental factors including temperature and water activity are among the most significant factors in affecting mycotoxigenic fungi growth at pre-harvest and post-harvest levels (Gab-Allah et al 2023 ). Anthropogenic activities including large-scale deforestation, the usage of fossil fuel as the main energy source, the over-exploitation of Earth’s resources, and other human activities have contributed to global climate change (Vagelas and Leontopoulos 2023 ).…”

“…Advanced analytical methods for mycotoxin detection from fresh produce and food-based products are crucial in determining contamination levels and therefore in setting appropriate toxicological standards. The determination of Alternaria mycotoxins is largely based on a sequence of steps, starting with the pre-treatment of samples, followed by clean-up through solvent partitioning or solid phase extraction (Gab-Allah et al 2023 ). Solid–liquid extraction with acetonitrile or ethyl acetate is the most common extraction method (Escrivá et al 2017 ).…”

High‐pressure acidified steaming with varied citric acid dosing can successfully detoxify mycotoxins

“…Mycotoxins are toxic fungal metabolites produced by some molds in grains, nuts, spices, dried fruits, etc. Mycotoxins are chemically stable, with most of them posing concerns to humans and livestock, including the potent toxic mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, citrinin, fumonisins, and patulin (Gab-Allah et al, 2023;Qing et al, 2022;Vylkova, 2017).…”

“…Mycotoxins are toxic fungal metabolites produced by some molds in grains, nuts, spices, dried fruits, etc. Mycotoxins are chemically stable, with most of them posing concerns to humans and livestock, including the potent toxic mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, citrinin, fumonisins, and patulin (Gab‐Allah et al, 2023 ; Qing et al, 2022 ; Vylkova, 2017 ). Many industrial and domestic processes, including heat treatment (roasting, boiling, and frying), fermentation, and irradiation, among others, have been studied for the removal of mycotoxins in foods (Awuchi, Ondari, Ofoedu, et al, 2021 ; Ozkan et al, 2023 ).…”

Effect of Temperature, Water Activity and Incubation Time on Trichothecene Production by Fusarium cerealis Isolated from Durum Wheat Grains

“…Deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV) are included within the type B trichothecenes. These mycotoxins affect protein synthesis and, in consequence, DNA biosynthesis by inhibiting the peptidyl transferase activity of 60S ribosomes [ 4 ]. In humans and animals, exposure to mycotoxins causes acute and chronic effects such as abdominal pain, feed refusal, anorexia, diarrhea, immunological problems, vomiting, skin dermatitis, and hemorrhagic lesions [ 5 , 6 ].…”