Type and token bigram frequencies for two-through nine-letter words and the prediction of anagram difficulty

Knight, David C.; Muncer, Steven

doi:10.3758/s13428-011-0068-x

Cited by 8 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 18 publications

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“…Words with more morphemes were also named and identified more accurately than words with fewer morphemes. This research also supported previous findings that the relative frequency of bigrams in different word positions could not explain the effect of morphemes, which supported their previous findings with the syllable effect (Knight & Muncer, ; Muncer & Knight, ).…”

Section: Introductionsupporting

confidence: 91%

Lexical decision and the number of morphemes and affixes

Muncer

Knight

Adams

2013

Scandinavian J Psychology

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There has been a considerable amount of research looking at the effects of both syllable number and syllable frequency on lexical decision and word naming times. Recently, there has also been an increased interest in morphological variables, but there have been no large scale studies that have examined the role of the number of morphemes in lexical decision for nonwords. This is partly because of the difficulty of identifying morphemes in nonwords. We present a program that identifies the presence of affixes and, therefore, can be used to count the number of morpheme-like elements in a nonword. We then used the program to measure the importance of affixes/morphemes in predicting lexical decision in nonwords. The results suggested that morphemes have an important role in lexical decision for both words and nonwords.

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Section: Introductionsupporting

confidence: 91%

Lexical decision and the number of morphemes and affixes

Muncer

Knight

Adams

2013

Scandinavian J Psychology

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“… 1. The minimal bigram frequency was shown to be a more adequate variable compared to the mean bigram frequency (Westbury & Buchanan, 2002). Token bigram frequencies were chosen as they have been shown to be adequate predictors of word identification times (Knight & Muncer, 2011; see also Conrad, Carreiras, & Jacobs, 2008, examining syllabic frequency effects). …”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

The use and nature of grapheme coding during sub-lexical processing and lexical access

Commissaire

Casalis

2018

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology

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This work aimed to investigate grapheme coding during sub-lexical processing and lexical access. Using the letter detection task in Experiment 1, we compared letter pairs that could be considered as a grapheme unit or not depending on context (referred to as weakly cohesive complex, e.g., an in chant vs cane) to real two-letter graphemes (highly cohesive complex, e.g., au in chaud) and single-letter graphemes (simple, e.g., a in place). Three experimental conditions were used, one of which was designed to prevent phonological influences. Data revealed that only highly cohesive complex graphemes were processed as units, not the weakly cohesive ones. The same pattern was found across experimental conditions in favor of an orthographic mechanism. In Experiments 2 and 3, a primed lexical decision task was used with two stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) and two different ranges of lexical frequency. We manipulated the number of graphemes removed from partial primes ( d**che vs do**he-DOUCHE) and relatedness. In contrast to Experiment 1, no evidence was provided in favor of a role of graphemes during lexical access. We suggest that graphemes can be conceived as sub-lexical orthographic units per se but can only be captured within a sub-lexical route to reading.

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“…Recently, Knight and Muncer (2011) have produced a program that calculates both type and token bigram frequencies and a number of other frequency-related statistics from Solso and Juel's (1980) tables. In reexamining some anagram related research (Novick & Sherman, 2004, they found that, although two-syllable words were more likely to have bigram troughs, half of the small sample of one-syllable words that they examined also had a trough (57/114).…”

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confidence: 99%

The bigram trough hypothesis and the syllable number effect in lexical decision

Muncer

Knight

2012

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology

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There has been an increasing volume of evidence supporting the role of the syllable in various word processing tasks. It has, however, been suggested that syllable effects may be caused by orthographic redundancy. In particular, it has been proposed that the presence of bigram troughs at syllable boundaries cause what are seen as syllable effects. We investigated the bigram trough hypothesis as an explanation of the number of syllables effect for lexical decision in five-letter words and nonwords from the British Lexicon Project. The number of syllables made a significant contribution to prediction of lexical decision times along with word frequency and orthographic similarity. The presence of a bigram trough did not. For nonwords, the number of syllables made a significant contribution to prediction of lexical decision times only for nonwords with relatively long decision times. The presence of a bigram trough made no contribution. The evidence presented suggests that the bigram trough cannot be an explanation of the syllable number effect in lexical decision. A comparison of the results from words and nonwords is interpreted as providing some support for dual-route models of reading.

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Type and token bigram frequencies for two-through nine-letter words and the prediction of anagram difficulty

Cited by 8 publications

References 18 publications

Lexical decision and the number of morphemes and affixes

Lexical decision and the number of morphemes and affixes

The use and nature of grapheme coding during sub-lexical processing and lexical access

The bigram trough hypothesis and the syllable number effect in lexical decision

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