“…From this analysis, it seems obvious that the spatial behaviors ofmammals and birds share a number of characteristics. Mammals and birds are able to orient to and navigate in their surroundings by means of different mechanisms-as, for example, by learning a particular sequence of responses to a goal (i.e., orientation; Mackintosh, 1965;Restle, 1957;Scharlock, 1955), by integrating their own spatial displacements over time (i.e., dead reckoning; Etienne, Hurni, Maurer, & Seguinot, 1991;Mittelstaedt & Mittelstaedt, 1982;St. Paul, 1982), by learning to directly approach an individual cue as if it were a beacon (i.e., guidance learning; Brodbeck, 1994;Clayton & Krebs, 1994;Cook & Tauro, 1999;Deutsch, 1960;, or by means of a variety of other egocentrically referenced representations oflandmarks (i.e., local views or snapshot mechanisms; Cartwright & Collett, 1983;Leonard & McNaughton, 1990).…”