Two types of language contact involving English Creoles

Abstract

The two African English-lexifier Creole languages Krio (Sierra Leone) and Pichi (Equatorial Guinea) are closely related. A close look at specific aspects of their grammar, however, shows divergence due to differing contact ecologies since their split in the 19th century. Krio has been spoken alongside its lexifier (the main lexicon-providing language) and superstrate (the socially dominant colonial language) English since its beginnings and Pichi alongside its superstrate Spanish for almost two centuries, but not alongside English. Resulting differences in contact outcomes transpire in the expression of tense, aspect, and mood, and the use of prepositions for the marking of participants. In these two areas, Krio has converged more with English than Pichi with Spanish because existing overlaps between Creole and lexifier forms have facilitated transfer from English. There is therefore evidence for different contact outcomes in Creoles depending on whether they continue to be in contact with a superstrate that is simultaneously the lexifier (in this case English), or not. No previous work has compared Krio and Pichi nor looked at these two Creole languages from the viewpoint of their differing linguistic ecologies and their resulting differentiation.

The indigenization of Ghanaian Pidgin English

“…For example, the predominantly isolating morphological structure of Ghanaian Pidgin and the adstrates goes along with fuzzy boundaries between lexemes and function words (Ansaldo et al, 2018), as we have witnessed in the case of copular expression. At the same time, the lexical similarity of Ghanaian Pidgin and English also provides opportunities for borrowing from the lexifier because it facilitates change of phonologically similar Ghanaian Pidgin lexemes and function words in the direction of their English etymons (Yakpo, 2017(Yakpo, , 2023.…”