Two prospective studies of changes in stress generation across depressive episodes in adolescents and emerging adults

Abstract

The stress generation hypothesis was tested in two different longitudinal studies examining relations between weekly depression symptom ratings and stress levels in adolescents and emerging adults at varied risk for depression. Participants in Study 1 included 240 adolescents who differed with regard to their mother’s history of depressive disorders. Youth were assessed annually across 6 years (Grades 6 through 12). Consistent with the depression autonomy model, higher numbers of prior major depressive episodes (MDEs) were associated with weaker stress generation effects, such that higher levels of depressive symptoms predicted increases in levels of dependent stressors for adolescents with ≤ 2 prior MDEs, but depressive symptoms were not significantly related to dependent stress levels for youth with ≥ 3 prior MDEs. In Study 2, participants were 32 remitted-depressed and 36 never-depressed young adults who completed a psychosocial stress task to determine cortisol reactivity and were re-assessed for depression and stress approximately eight months later. Stress generation effects were moderated by cortisol responses to a laboratory psychosocial stressor, such that individuals with higher cortisol responses exhibited a pattern consistent with the depression autonomy model, whereas individuals with lower cortisol responses showed a pattern more consistent with the depression sensitization model. Finally, comparing across the two samples, stress generation effects were weaker for older participants and for those with more prior MDEs. The complex, multi-factorial relation between stress and depression is discussed.

Increased occurrence of PTSD symptoms in adolescents with major depressive disorder soon after the start of the COVID-19 outbreak in China: a cross-sectional survey

“…Age is a crucial factor associated with psychological stress caused by disasters [ 38 , 39 ] . In our study, junior high school students with MDD showed higher avoidance levels than senior high school students.…”

Associations between friend conflict and affective states in the daily lives of adolescents

“…For example, adolescents who feel irritable or depressed may be more likely to perceive their friends' behaviors as rejecting, annoying, or hostile, leading them to lash out verbally at their friends and start arguments over otherwise innocuous interactions. Indeed, such interpersonal stress generation, such as conflicts with friends, occurs frequently among adolescents with elevated negative affect in long‐term prospective studies (Hankin, Stone, & Wright, 2010; McLaughlin & Nolen‐Hoeksema, 2012; Morris, Kouros, Hellman, Rao, & Garber, 2014; Rose, Glick, Smith, Schwartz‐Mette, & Borowski, 2016a; Rudolph et al, 2000). However, it remains unclear as to how affective states impact subsequent friend conflicts on a proximal, daily level.…”

“…It is possible that distinct mechanisms may account for why different affective states contribute to subsequent friend conflicts. Adolescents with elevated depressed affect are more likely to have a negative focus on oneself; excessively seek reassurance from others to validate their self‐worth; interpret innocuous events as being personal, negative and stressful; and have greater executive functioning problems (McLaughlin & Nolen‐Hoeksema, 2012; Morris et al, 2014; Rudolph et al, 2000; Vilgis, Silk, & Vance, 2015). These characteristics decrease social competence and may increase subsequent risk for having more frequent conflicts with friends, or at least increase perceptions that a conflict occurred, particularly because adolescents tend to co‐ruminate with friends about their problems (Rose et al, 2016).…”

Interpersonal childhood adversity and stress generation in adolescence: Moderation by HPA axis multilocus genetic variation

“…Further, HPA axis-related genetic risk has never been examined in relation to stress generation. Recent work has shown that HPA axis dysregulation following laboratory stress predicts stress generation (Morris et al, 2014). Our findings indicate that genetic risk linked to HPA axis functioning may interact with environmental stress, namely ICA, to promote stress generation.…”

“…Indeed, many have pointed to disruptions in the development of the HPA axis and associated neural structures as key biological mechanisms for stress sensitization and increased depression risk following CA exposure (e.g., Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2012; Heim & Nemeroff, 2001; Starr et al, 2017; Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006). Further, HPA axis dysfunction (measured using cortisol responses) in response to a laboratory stressor has been found to predict stress generation among young adults (Morris, Kouros, Hellman, Rao, & Garber, 2014).…”