Twenty‐year weathering remeasurements at St Paul's Cathedral, London

Trudgill, Stephen; Viles, Heather; Inkpen, Robert; Moses, Cherith; Gosling, William D.; Yates, Tim; Collier, Paul; Smith, David; Cooke, R. U.

doi:10.1002/esp.260

Cited by 51 publications

(20 citation statements)

References 11 publications

(16 reference statements)

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“…In fact, Stephenson and Kirk (2001) noted similar behaviour with some TMEM measurements, where some erosion occurs on surfaces that remain elevated with respect to initial measurements. Therefore, the term 'swelling' for describing this mechanism, previously used by other workers, does not seem the most appropriate because points can change from a relative fall to a relative rise (Trudgill et al, 2001). This dynamic rock surface behaviour, where the surface rises with respect to the initial position or falls, and where erosion occurs during this change, could be better labelled as 'short-term surface change' or 'short-term micro-topography change'.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Two‐hourly surface change on supra‐tidal rock (Marengo, Victoria, Australia)

Gómez-Pujol

Stephenson

Fornós

2006

Earth Surf Processes Landf

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A traversing micro-erosion meter was used to measure rock surface micro-topography over 40 cm 2 on a supra-tidal cliff face from early morning to late evening in late spring. From 06:00 hours to 22:00 hours the relative heights of 188 coordinates were obtained using the meter at 2-hour intervals, resulting in a data set of 1607 readings. Monitoring shows that rock surfaces are dynamic entities, with significant rise and fall relative to the first measurement at shorter timescales than previously reported. The maximum positive rise between readings was 0·261 mm and lowering was 0·126 mm. The pattern of change did not relate as expected to environmental variables such as temperature or insolation. Rather, the surface showed greater surface change in the early morning and late afternoon. It is hypothesized that this pattern relates to the expansion and contraction of lichen thalli as moisture is absorbed during higher humidity in the morning and late afternoon. The implications of these results for weathering studies are considered.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Two‐hourly surface change on supra‐tidal rock (Marengo, Victoria, Australia)

Gómez-Pujol

Stephenson

Fornós

2006

Earth Surf Processes Landf

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“…Measurements taken in 2010 demonstrated a slight rise however, attributable to microbiological growth. A pattern was also reported relating to variations in rainfall, although the association between volume and surface loss noted was not a simple linear one [31]. Similarly, it is unlikely that linear relationships between climate variables and weathering processes will be established with the LegIT.…”

Section: Experimental Designmentioning

confidence: 95%

“…An example of how one such process evolved is the 30 year project at St Paul's Cathedral on surface erosion and surface change (including accretion) [30][31][32]. This study uses microerosion meters 4 to measure changes in the surface elevation of a limestone balustrade, concentrating on near-horizontal surfaces [30].…”

Section: Experimental Designmentioning

confidence: 99%

The design of a legacy indicator tool for measuring climate change related impacts on built heritage

Daly

2016

Herit Sci

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Background:We are experiencing a period of climate change the extent and impact of which is uncertain. In the cultural heritage sector the need for monitoring to inform our understanding is widely agreed, yet there is a lack of consensus over what constitutes 'monitoring for climate change' . This is due, at least in part, to the extended timescales involved. In this paper the design and implementation of one solution is described; a sustainable legacy indicator tool (LegIT) for the long term tracking of surface weathering effects on built heritage. Results:The assessment of climate change impacts requires 30-100 years of data collection, equal to the period referred to as the 'climate norm' by meteorologists. The LegIT is a sacrificial stone object that registers changes in the severity and/or magnitude of weathering patterns on built surfaces, providing a legacy data source for future decision makers. To ensure its sustainability, careful thought was given to the choice of materials, data retrieval and archiving. The tool aims to track surface changes caused by recession, salt crystallisation and microbiological growth. Conclusion:The development and installation of the LegIT is the first long-term exposure trial to be initiated at heritage sites in Ireland and is intended as a legacy for future researchers.

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“…The role of particulate matter in the form of dry and wet deposition and their contribution to the formation of black weathering crusts has already been discussed (Amoroso and Fassina 1983;Bonazza et al 2004Bonazza et al , 2005; Del Monte and Monte et al 2001;Fassina et al 2002;Lefèvre and Ausset 2002;Moropoulou et al 1998;Smith et al 1988;Trudgill et al 2001;Viles 1994;Thornbush and Viles 2004). The dry deposition of airborne particles also includes calcium-rich aerosols, which therefore play their part in calcium import (Charola and Ware 2002).…”

Section: Sulfur and Calcium Sourcesmentioning

confidence: 98%

The effect of air pollution on stone decay: the decay of the Drachenfels trachyte in industrial, urban, and rural environments—a case study of the Cologne, Altenberg and Xanten cathedrals

et al. 2013

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Severe stone deterioration is evident at the Cologne cathedral. In particular, the ''Drachenfels'' trachyte, which was the building material of the medieval construction period, shows significant structural deterioration as well as massive formation of gypsum crusts. The present article investigates crust formation on limestone, sandstone, and volcanic rock from the Cologne cathedral as well as from the Xanten and Altenberg cathedrals. These three buildings, showing varying degrees of deterioration, are located in different areas and exposed to varying industrial, urban, and rural pollution. Thin laminar and black framboidal crusts form on calcareous as well as silicate stone. The lack of a significant intrinsic calcium and sulfur source for the formation of the gypsum crusts on the Drachenfels trachyte indicates major extrinsic environmental impact: a sufficient offer of SO x from pollutant fluxes as well as external calcium sources (e.g., pollution, mortars, neighboring calcite stones). Chemical analyses reveal strong gypsum enrichment within the crusts as well as higher concentrations of lead and other pollutants (arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tin, etc.), which generally can be linked to traffic and industry. The formation of weathering crusts in an industrial environment is clearly distinguishable from that in rural areas. Scanning electron microscopy observations confirm that the total amount of pollution is less at the Altenberg cathedral than at the Cologne and Xanten cathedrals. XRF analyses show that the formation of gypsum occurs in lower amounts at Altenberg. This correlates well with the measured SO 2 content and the intensity of the decay at the different locations. Furthermore, the different types of crusts, e.g., framboidal and laminar, can be differentiated and assigned to the different locations. The black weathering crusts on the silicate Drachenfels trachyte contribute to the degradation of the historic building material. They enhance mechanical moisture-related deterioration processes and the decay by chemical corrosion of rock-forming minerals. Although SO 2 concentrations in air have shown a strong decrease over the past 30 years, degradation in connection with weathering crusts is still observed. This indicates that not only contemporary or recent emissions, but also past pollutant concentrations have to be considered.

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Twenty‐year weathering remeasurements at St Paul's Cathedral, London

Abstract: Microerosion meter (MEM)

Cited by 51 publications

References 11 publications

Two‐hourly surface change on supra‐tidal rock (Marengo, Victoria, Australia)

Two‐hourly surface change on supra‐tidal rock (Marengo, Victoria, Australia)

The design of a legacy indicator tool for measuring climate change related impacts on built heritage

The effect of air pollution on stone decay: the decay of the Drachenfels trachyte in industrial, urban, and rural environments—a case study of the Cologne, Altenberg and Xanten cathedrals

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