Twenty-First Century Progress Toward the Global Control of Human Hookworm Infection

Abstract

Hookworms are bloodsucking nematodes that afflict up to 740 million persons in tropical and subtropical regions, with Asia and sub-Saharan Africa exhibiting particularly high infection rates. Prevalence, intensity, and pathology often vary considerably at both the regional and local level, and may be influenced by coinfection with other parasitic infections such as malaria. Immunoepidemiological studies suggest that hookworms manipulate the host immune response and may provide some protection from allergy and asthma. There has been substantial progress in elucidating the molecular pathogenesis of hookworm disease, with anticoagulants, protease inhibitors, digestive proteases, and novel excretory/secretory proteins being of particular interest. Mass chemotherapy remains a mainstay of hookworm control strategies, although continued use of drugs may lead to reduced efficacy and treatment failures have been observed. Consequently, a need exists for innovative approaches, such as vaccination; recent studies have identified and/or evaluated candidate vaccine antigens in human and animal models.

The Transcriptome Analysis of Strongyloides stercoralis L3i Larvae Reveals Targets for Intervention in a Neglected Disease

“…These ES proteins play a major role in infection since they are present at the host-parasite interface and regulate host immune system [66]. ESPs also are among the target choice of new therapeutic solutions for helminth infections [67], as confirmed in the case of ivermectin (the currently the drug of choice for treating strongyloidosis) which has been shown to act reducing the secretion of ESPs from the ES apparatus in Brugia malayi microfilariae [68].…”

Molecular mechanisms of hookworm disease: Stealth, virulence, and vaccines

“…neutralization of host defenses through inhibition of host intestinal proteases and immune evasion by modulation of the host inflammation response. 12 other tissues by degrading fibronectin, laminin, and collagen. The metalloprotease inhibitor 1,10-phenanthroline inhibits larval skin penetration, and antiserum against recombinant Ac-MTP-1 can block migration of larvae through tissue in vitro, 18 highlighting the importance of this enzyme in the infective process.…”

Hookworm Infection among School Age Children in Kintampo North Municipality, Ghana: Nutritional Risk Factors and Response to Albendazole Treatment

“…[1][2][3] Hookworm infection increases risk of anemia and causes negative effects on growth, iron status, and cognition in children with high intensity infections. 4 -6 Hookworm is most prevalent in resource poor areas, 7 where limited access to sanitation, sewage treatment, and use of night soil in agriculture contribute to transmission.…”