Tsunami Occurrence 1900–2020: A Global Review, with Examples from Indonesia

Abstract

We present an overview of tsunami occurrences based on an analysis of a global database of tsunamis for the period 1900–2020. We evaluate the geographic and statistical distribution of various tsunami source mechanisms, high-fatality tsunamis, maximum water heights (MWHs) of tsunamis, and possible biases in the observation and recording of tsunami events. We enhance a global statistical overview with case studies from Indonesia, where tsunamis are generated from a diverse range of sources, including subduction zones, crustal faults, landslides, and volcanic islands. While 80% of global recorded tsunamis during 1900–2020 have been attributed to earthquake sources, the median MWH of earthquake tsunamis is just 0.4 m. In contrast, the median water height of landslide tsunamis is 4 m. Landslides have caused or contributed to 24% of fatal tsunamis. During 1900–2020, more tsunamis with water heights > 1 m occurred in Indonesia than in any other country. In this region fatal tsunamis are caused by subduction zone earthquakes, landslides, volcanos, and intraplate crustal earthquakes. Landslide and volcano tsunami sources, as well as coastal landforms such as narrow embayments have caused high local maximum water heights and numerous fatalities in Indonesia. Tsunami hazards are increased in this region due to the densely populated and extensive coastal zones, as well as sea level rise from polar ice melt and local subsidence. Interrelated and often extreme natural hazards in this region present both an opportunity and a need to better understand a broader range of tsunami processes.

Bayesian Hierarchical Modeling for Probabilistic Estimation of Tsunami Amplitude From Far‐Field Earthquake Sources

“…We favored amplitude observations from tide gauges over post‐tsunami inland runup measurements, because the latter comprise a mixture of measurement techniques, reference datums, and survey locations (Arcos et al., 2019), and thus pose uncertainty to empirical data analysis. We quality constrained the tsunami amplitude data so that: (a) the dates of the events are between 1900 and 2021, (b) the source validity is “ definite tsunami ,” (c) the cause of tsunami is “ earthquake ,” and (d) the validity of the measurement is “ entry was not doubtful .” We considered data only after 1900, because tsunami events prior to late 1800s involve significant uncertainty related to poor instrumentation and unreliable documentation in the catalog (Reid & Mooney, 2022). Further, we disregarded events with a recorded amplitude of ≤0.1 m prior to 1960.…”

“…We quality constrained the tsunami amplitude data so that: (a) the dates of the events are between 1900 and 2021, (b) the source validity is "definite tsunami," (c) the cause of tsunami is "earthquake," and (d) the validity of the measurement is "entry was not doubtful." We considered data only after 1900, because tsunami events prior to late 1800s involve significant uncertainty related to poor instrumentation and unreliable documentation in the catalog (Reid & Mooney, 2022). Further, we disregarded events with a recorded amplitude of ≤0.1 m prior to 1960.…”

Introduction to “Sixty Years of Modern Tsunami Science, Volume 2: Challenges”

“…We start the topical issue with Reid and Mooney’s ( 2023 ) study, which provides an overview of global tsunamis from 1900 to 2020. The authors analyze tsunami sources, fatalities, maximum water heights, and observation biases.…”

Wave Generation by Fluidized Granular Flows: Experimental Insights Into the Maximum Near‐Field Wave Amplitude

“…A volcanic fatalities database, covering the period from 1500 AD to 2017, reports that volcanic eruptions claimed approximately 280,000 lives (Auker et al., 2013; Brown et al., 2017). Volcanic tsunamis account for almost a quarter of those fatalities (Brown et al., 2017; Latter, 1981; Paris, 2015; Reid & Mooney, 2022). Therefore, although volcanic eruptions are relatively rare when compared to earthquake tsunamis (5% and 80% of all documented tsunamis, respectively), when they do occur, they can be deadly to nearby coastal communities.…”