Trends in bioanalytical methods for the determination and quantification of club drugs: 2000–2010

Abstract

The term 'club drug' can be loosely defined as any substance used to enhance social settings. Such drugs are commonly found at raves or similar all-night dance parties and include methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), ketamine (KET), and flunitrazepam (FLU). These drugs have potentially dangerous side effects including hallucinations, paranoia, amnesia and hyperthermia. In addition, GHB, KET and FLU are considered predatory drugs due to their roles in drug-facilitated sexual assault. Forensic and regulatory agencies routinely have the need for determination and accurate quantification of these drugs in biological fluids, especially in cases of mortality or criminal investigations. This review presents the chromatographic and spectroscopic methods published for such analyses over the last decade, including sample preparation techniques and validation data.

Effects of ketamine on psychomotor, sensory and cognitive functions relevant for driving ability

“…Overall, ketamine, norketamine and dehydronorketamine can be identified in whole blood, plasma, urine, hair, oral fluids and other specimens, with urine and blood being the most frequently used sources for confirming ketamine intake [81]. KET is detectable in urine within 3 h [82] and up to 72 h after intake, with its metabolites possibly being detected up to 6-14 days later depending upon the method of identification [83,84].…”

“…In urine, ketamine is reported to be relatively stable over three freeze-thaw cycles [87]. The most common analytical method for identifying KET and its metabolites is GC-MS, but HPLC is also frequently used [81,88]. Immunochemical assays have been associated with unacceptable levels of false-positive results and a lack of specificity.…”

Unmodified gold nanoparticles as a colorimetric probe for visual methamphetamine detection

“…This kind of drugs include gamma-hydroxy butyric acid (GHB) (Liquid X), ketamine (Special K), methamphetamine (MA), 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA or Ecstasy), and flunitrazepam (rophynol). [1] Among these drugs, MA and MDMA experience the highest level of use due to their low cost and easy preparation from common ingredients. [2] Among different analytical methods which can be used for MA and MDMA analysis, gas chromatography (GC) has been primarily used, due to its sensitivity and selectivity.…”

“…[9] Among various separation techniques, MS dominated the detection of club drugs. Although there are other detection techniques, very few methods utilised a detection mechanism with GC, other than MS. [1] The above-mentioned techniques generally suffer from a long operation time and sophisticated experimental procedures, such as sample pretreatment. In comparison, colorimetric-based strategies are very valuable for on-site detection of these drugs due to their simplicity, rapidity, and not involving in any intricate apparatus.…”

Determination of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), pregabalin, 1,4-butane-diol (1,4BD) and gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) in whole blood and urine samples by UPLC–MSMS

“…Additionally, the GC methods could not distinguish between GHB, 1,4BD and GBL. Despite this fact, GC was the most abundant separation technique used in the determination of GHB between 2001 and 2010 [26].…”