Transovarian passage, visceral distribution, and pathogenicity of salmonella in snakes

Abstract

Transovarian passage of salmonella was evaluated in snakes by cesarean delivery and subsequent bacteriological examination of fetuses. In all cases, the same Salmonella serotype was isolated from the feces of gravid females and their fetuses. The visceral distribution of salmonella in normal snakes was found to involve almost all visceral organs. Of nonenteric organs examined, salmonella was recovered most often from the livers and ureters. Experimental infections with Salmonella typhimurium and Salmonella arizonae were established by oral, intracardial, and intracoelomic routes. Animals infected orally shed the organism in feces, but did not develop humoral antibodies or any detectable adverse effect. Animals injected by the intracardiac and intracoelomic routes developed antibody titers of 1:256 to the respective salmonella serotypes, but remained normal throughout the experiment. On the basis of results, salmonella was regarded as an opportunistic organism in reptiles.

Recovery of a Pathogenic Salmonella arizona from Four Snakes at the Riverbanks Zoo

“…Variables that affect the outcom e o f the host-pathogen interaction include the immune-status of the host, the dose and virulence of the pathogen, and the environmental factors that affect the am ount of exposure to the pathogen. It has been suggested that the pathogenicity of Salmonella in snakes is based exclusively on its isolation from nonenteric sites (Chiodini, 1981and 1982, Oros, et al, 1996. Salmonella ari zona has been described as an opportunistic pathogen, as well as a primary agent of reptilian disease, and it is thought that the organism may become highly pathogenic when the animal is immunocompromised (Boever, 1975, Cambre, et al, 1980, Chiodini, 1982, Frye, 1991, Hilf, 1990, Oros, et al, 1996.…”

“…Salmonella arizona has been associated with gastroenteritis, pneumonia, e n d o c a rd itis , n e p h ritis , h e p a titis , o s te o a rth ro p a th y , osteomyelitis, and septicemia in snakes (Boever, 1975, Frye, 1991, Hilf, et al, 1990, Jacobson, et al, 1991, Kiel, 1983, Bennet, 1996, Ramsay, et al, 1996. Experimental inoculation of snakes with Salmonella arizona did not cause clinical dis ease, leading to the suggestion that Salmonella arizona is an opportunistic pathogen in an im m unocom prom ised host (Chiodini, 1982). This case report describes Salmonella ari zona infection in four snakes housed in close proximity to each other.…”

Ultrasound‐guided Percutaneous Liver Biopsy in Snakes

“…[8][9] In several articles describing hepatic disease in snakes, both infectious and non-infectious agents have been reported. [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] Physical examination of the liver and adjacent coelomic structures by palpation is unrewarding in most snakes be- cause of the thick overlying scutes. Therefore, the use of blind percutaneous liver biopsy techniques can be difficult and dangerous in snakes.…”

How important is the eggshell as a source for initial acquisition of Salmonella in hatchling turtles?

“…The first line of defense is the integument, which provides a physical barrier against pathogens, while the immune system provides the major defense against pathogens that either breach the integument, or are internalized by the animal through ingestion or across other permeable surfaces. In oviparous vertebrates, vertical transmission (i.e., transfer from mother to offspring) can arise from the transfer of pathogens during the formation of the egg as in transovarial transfer during yolk deposition (Chiodini, ; Cox et al, ), during passage of the egg through the cloaca (Ruiz‐de‐Castañeda et al, ), or during egg incubation (Ruiz‐de‐Castañeda et al, ). Vertical transmission to offspring can also occur during the hatching process (Oh et al, ).…”

“…Topical contact with Salmonella may also occur through maternal transmission via direct passage from the mother's cloaca to the eggshell during oviposition (Izadjoo et al, ; Johnson‐Delaney, ). Though transovarial transmission has not been confirmed in turtles, studies within other reptilian taxa have found that transovarial transmission readily occurs (Chiodini, ; Schröter et al, ), and is suspected to occur in turtles (Kaufmann and Morrison, ).…”