Transmission of Infectious Equine Encephalomyelitis in Mammals and Birds

Dynamics of eastern equine encephalitis virus during the 2019 outbreak in the Northeast United States

“…2D). We estimate the time of origin of the US phylogeny to be 1923.2 (95% Highest Posterior Density (HPD): 1920.5-1925.9), ten years before EEEV was first detected when it caused a large outbreak in horses in Virginia in 1933 (Giltner & Shahan, 1933). Further, we found a strong temporal signal for this dataset (Fig.…”

“…Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is a mosquito-borne virus that causes periodic outbreaks in humans and horses in the United States (US) since its discovery in 1933 (Giltner & Shahan, 1933;TenBroeck & Merrill, 1933). The virus circulates in a bird-mosquito transmission cycle while infections of most mammals are considered "dead end hosts".…”

The Epidemiology of St. Louis Encephalitis: A Review

“…Early epidemiological studies on Eastern equine encephalitis (34,35) indicated that birds were important reservoir hosts for EEE virus. These ob servations led to surveys of avian populations for serologic evidence of natural SLE virus infection (36,37) and to studies on experimental infection with this agent in wild and domestic birds (38)(39)(40).…”

Hereditary Transmission of the Western Type of Equine Encephalomyelitis Virus in the Wood Tick, Dermacentor Andersoni Stiles

“…There are indications that the ground squirrel, Citellus richardsonii (Sabine), may be a reservoir host (20,21,36). There are probably other animals which can act in this capacity, for the susceptibility of a considerable variety has already been established (3,4,(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25). 4 3 The ability of ticks to serve as vectors has been demonstrated for four viruses: louping ill virus, transmitted by Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus) (29) and by Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann (30); the virus of tick-borne fever (sheep), by Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus) (31); the virus of Nairobi sheep disease, by Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann (32,33) and by Ambylomma variegatum (Fabricius) (34); and the virus of rabbit papilloma (Shope) by Haemaphysalis leporis-palustris (Packard) (35).…”

“…The disease has been found in nature only in members of the equine (3)(4)(5), human (6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13), and avian (14,15) groups. Experimentally, however, the susceptibility of a wide variety of mammals and birds has been demonstrated (3,4,(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25). Nevertheless, no natural reservoir has been found among the domestic or wild animals native to North America.…”