Translational Toxinology: Venom to Antivenom

Abstract

A great natural diversity exists across animal taxa and species that produce venom, and although venoms are primarily used in the acquisition of prey and secondarily for defense, it is their adverse effects on humans that have driven scientific and medical research. The spectrum of venom-producing organisms and the venom components and toxins across organism species is highly variable. Venom components function in concert and selectively in their actions producing pathophysiological effects for subduing prey. In contrast, when non-prey species such as humans are encountered, the biting or stinging as a result of a defensive or fear response may result in envenomation. Following envenomation a myriad of venom-/toxin-induced adverse and toxicological insults to various physiological systems may result. What creatures are venomous, how they envenomate, their venom composition, how their venom components/toxins work mechanistically, and the pathophysiological effects of venom in envenomated humans led to the quest for remedies and antidotes. Prominently, among therapeutic advancements was the development of passive antisera therapy in the late1800s for cobra envenomation (Calmette 1894). Today's formulations of snake venom immunotherapies (antivenom) are relatively unchanged with respect to general antibody structure and mechanism of action. However, recent technological advances in antibody preparation, purification, and product formulation and combined venomic and antivenomic technologies are leading to novel, refined toxin-targeted antivenoms (Calvete et al. 2009). Toxinology has been translational over time, across biological systems, across scientific disciplines, and technologically, leading to our improved understanding of venom-producing animals, venoms, and the design and development of more efficacious antivenoms.