Towards an Exemplar Model of Face Processing: The Effects of Race and Distinctiveness

Abstract

Valentine (1991a, 1991b) described a theoretical framework for face recognition in which faces are encoded as locations in a multidimensional space. It was argued that this approach could provide a unified account of the effects of distinctiveness, inversion, and race on face recognition. In this paper we evaluate the ability of this theoretical framework to account for the effects of distinctiveness and race in four experiments in which white British and Japanese faces served as stimuli and both white British and Japanese students acted as subjects. In a recognition memory experiment the expected "own-race bias" was observed as a Race of Subject x Race of Face interaction. Distinctive faces were recognized more accurately than typical faces, but the effect of distinctiveness did not interact with the race of face or the race of subject. Typical faces were classified faster than distinctive faces in a task in which intact faces had to be distinguished from jumbled faces, as found in earlier work, and the effect of distinctiveness did not interact with the race of face or race of subject. In contrast, a task in which subjects classified faces according to their race did show a greater effect of distinctiveness for own-race faces. The results are discussed in relation to the two specific models within the multidimensional space framework identified by Valentine (1991a): a purely exemplar-based model and a norm-based coding model. It is argued that these results are more easily accommodated in terms of a purely exemplar-based model. Some conceptual problems in applying the norm-based coding model to the effect of race are discussed.

Dog owners show experience-based viewing behaviour in judging dog face approachability

“…Such viewing bias towards dog faces in dog-owners seems to fit well with the multidimensional face space model, which suggests that as we become more familiar with a type of faces, we develop dimensions to code those faces (Valentine, 1991). This model has been used to explain some experience-based face perception bias, such as own-race bias (Valentine & Endo, 1992;Hills & Lewis, 2011). It is plausible that the same theoretical model can be extended to account for the observed dog face processing advantage (shorter viewing time, higher approachability rating, and experiencedmodulated gaze allocation) in dog-owners.…”

Beneficial effects of verbalization and visual distinctiveness on remembering and knowing faces

“…Indeed, this finding has been used to constrain a number of models of face memory (e.g., Lewis, 2004;Valentine, 1991;Valentine & Endo, 1992). One such influential model is the exemplar-based face space model developed by Valentine (1991; see also Lewis, 2004, for a revised exemplar-based model).…”

Sustained effects of adaptation on the perception of familiar faces.

“…Besides other (e.g., exemplar-based) models (Valentine & Endo, 1992), it has been proposed that individual faces might be represented by their deviations from an average face that is abstracted from all faces ever encountered (Valentine, 1991(Valentine, , 2001). This prototype, norm, or average face is thought to serve as a reference point for all individual faces in the face space.…”