Toward the chemical ecology of medicinal plant use in chimpanzees: The case ofVernonia amygdalina, a plant used by wild chimpanzees possibly for parasite-related diseases

Abstract

The bitter and related constituents have been isolated fromVernonia amygdalina (Compositae), a plant ingested by wild chimpanzees possibly suffering from parasite-related diseases in the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Isolated from the plant were four known sesquiterpene lactones, seven new steroid glucosides, and two aglycones of the glucosides. The sesquiterpene lactones showed significant in vitro antischistosomal, plasmodicidal, and leishmanicidal activities. Antischistosomal activity was also found for the major steroid glucoside, vernonioside B1. A trend in the glucosides to show significant antischistosomal, plasmodicidal, and amebicidal activities when the sugar moiety was removed, was observed. Vernodalin, judged as the most significant constituent for antiparasitic activities in vitro, was tested for in vivo antischistosomal effect. It was, however, highly toxic to the cercaria-infected mouse. Chimpanzees have been only rarely observed to ingest anything but the pith of the young stem. The occurrence of vernonioside B1 and its aglycone vernoniol B1, the major constituents among the steroid-related constituents, were detected at significant levels in the pith. However, vernodalin was abundant only in the leaves and bark. Thus, chimpanzees at Mahale were hypothesized to control parasite-related diseases by ingesting the young pith of this tree containing steroid-related constituents.

Anti-schistosomiasis triterpene glycoside from the Egyptian medicinal plant Asparagus stipularis

“…The test was assayed using the method reported previously by Ohigashi et al (1994). Briefly, adult pair of schistosomes of Egyptian strain S. mansoni was cultured in RPMI-1640 medium.…”

Self-medication and homeostatic behaviour in herbivores: learning about the benefits of nature’s pharmacy

“…Parasite loads decrease dramatically after animals consume that plant, and overt signs of disease disappear (Huffman and Seifu, 1989;Huffman et al, 1993). V. amygdalina contains sesquiterpene lactones and steroid glucosides with antiparasitic activity at the doses consumed by the animals Ohigashi et al, 1994). PSMs in V. amygdalina also have been effective at controlling nematodes that cause significant losses of livestock in the tropics (Plotkin, 2000).…”

Bioactive properties of plant species ingested by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Kibale National Park, Uganda

“…Behavioral, ecological, and pharmacological studies have shown that the great ape diet contains a variety of plant parts of no apparent nutritional significance, which may be consumed because of their secondary compounds [e.g., Huffman et al, 1998a;Jisaka et al, 1992;Koshimizu et al, 1993;Wrangham & Waterman, 1983;Wrangham et al, 1998]. It has been suggested that some of these dietary plants may also have medicinal properties [Huffman, 2003;Huffman et al, 1998a,b;Ohigashi et al, 1994]. Chemical investigations of the medicinal hypothesis have focused mainly on the consequences of two types of non-nutritional ingestion (i.e., ingestion of items that appear to be of little or no nutritive significance) in chimpanzees: 1) swallowing whole leaves of various species, and 2) ingesting the bitter pith of Vernonia amygdalina [Huffman & Seifu, 1989;Wrangham & Goodall, 1989;Wrangham & Nishida, 1983].…”

“…Messner and Wrangham [1996] examined the in vitro anthelmintic activity of Rubia cordifolia rough leaves, but no significant activity was observed. On the other hand, bitter pith has been shown to have potential pharmacological consequences because it contains chemical compounds that apparently are responsible for the control of nematode infections [Huffman et al, , 1996aKoshimizu et al, 1993;Ohigashi et al, 1994]. Furthermore, it has been suggested that compounds found in the ordinary diet of animals may have important positive effects on health and may prevent risks of infection and illness [Huffman, 1997;Huffman et al, 1998a;Janzen, 1978].…”

“…Chemical investigations of the medicinal hypothesis have focused mainly on the consequences of two types of non-nutritional ingestion (i.e., ingestion of items that appear to be of little or no nutritive significance) in chimpanzees: 1) swallowing whole leaves of various species, and 2) ingesting the bitter pith of Vernonia amygdalina [Huffman & Seifu, 1989;Wrangham & Goodall, 1989;Wrangham & Nishida, 1983]. The antiparasitic properties of the plants ingested by chimpanzees in these cases were also investigated [Huffman et al, , 1996bKoshimizu et al, 1994;Jisaka et al, 1992Jisaka et al, , 1993Ohigashi et al, 1994]. While leaf-swallowing has been convincingly implicated as an agent of parasite expulsion [Huffman & Caton, 2001;Huffman et al, 1996b], and may be involved in alleviating digestive pain caused by parasites [Wrangham, 1995], its known effects are due to physical rather than chemical causes [Huffman & Caton, 2001;Huffman et al, 1996a;1997;Page et al, 1997].…”