Concurrent Developments in Alignment and Science Education The Standards for Educational and Psychological Assessment recognize that evidence of validity based on test content is "at the heart of" alignment (AERA, APA, & NCME, 2014, p. 15). Alignment studies have traditionally focused on gathering specific evidence of the match between assessment items and performance expectations presented in the form of academic content standards (hereafter referred to as standards) by convening educators and content experts to review test forms in conjunction with content standards to determine the level of consistency between the two. Although such data serve as a good source of validity evidence, this content focus provides only a part of the picture of assessment alignment as envisioned over two decades ago. Alignment criteria, originally developed by a panel of experts and published in a monograph by Norman Webb (1997), included not only Content Focus, but also Articulation Across Grades and Ages, Equity and Fairness, Pedagogical Implications, and System Applicability. The Articulation Across Grades and Ages criterion addresses the extent to which standards and assessment reflect a common, research-based view of human development and how students move from basic to more complex understanding of concepts. The Equity and Fairness criterion addresses the extent to which both standards and assessment provide all students the opportunity to demonstrate high levels of learning. The Pedagogical Implications criterion addresses the classroom practices implied by the standards and assessment. Finally, the System Applicability criterion addresses the extent to which key stakeholder groups understand the standards and assessment and consider them to be acceptable and attainable (Webb, 1997). Early alignment studies that sought to apply these criteria focused on the Content Focus criterion (e.g., Webb, 1999), which set the stage for the Webb alignment benchmarks of categorical concurrence, depth of knowledge consistency, range of knowledge correspondence, and balance of representation to become what are arguably the most commonly known indicators of alignment. Lesser known components of the Content Focus criterion that were omitted from these early empirical studies included structure of knowledge comparability, which compared the relationships among ideas as suggested by the standards with those reflected in the test, and dispositional consonance, which focused on the extent to which broader expectations reflected in standards (e.g., attitudes) are also reflected in assessment practices. This narrowed focus was likely shaped by the fact that evidence of