Tourism, risk tolerance and competences: Travel organization and tourism hazards

Tourism at Risk: A Review of Risk and Perceived Risk in Tourism

“…A substantial number of past studies adopted Hofstede's (2001) five cultural dimensions to examine the causal linkages between risk attitudes and social norms in different countries (George, 2010;Korstanje, 2009;Kozak et al, 2007;Quintal et al, 2010;Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005;Seabra, Dolnicar, Abrantes, & Kastenholz, 2013). Socio-demographic factor is another popular dimension in examining the underlying factors of tourists' risk perception (Aschauer, 2010;Chang, 2010;Sönmez & Graefe, 1998b;Williams & Baláž, 2013). It is reasonable to postulate that even from the same nation or age group, tourists are heterogeneous in terms of their risk perception (Seabra et al, 2013).…”

“…Thus, it is essential to examine risk perception at the micro level, which is at the individual level. Back in the 1970s, Cohen's (1972) classic work, Toward a Sociology of International Tourism, proposed a multidisciplinary model that links sociology to the realm of psychology where it categorizes tourists into four distinctive roles based on the individual's preference of novelty or familiarity: organized mass tourist, independent mass tourist, drifter, and explorer (Aschauer, 2010;Lepp & Gibson, 2003;Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005;Seabra et al, 2013;Williams & Baláž, 2013). Lepp and Gibson (2003) were the first to systematically investigate the influence of tourist role and their preference for novelty or familiarity on risk perception.…”

“…Plog's work, however, was not without any dispute. Critics pointed out that the proposed tourist personality types lacked rigor (Korstanje, 2009) and were addressed in an oblique manner (Williams & Baláž, 2013). Taking up a psychological perspective, Korstanje (2009) urged risk perception researchers to adopt the Attachment Theory which investigates travellers' childhood memories in order to fully understand why some individuals are more adventurous or have higher endurance than others when it comes to risk.…”

“…There has been an increasing number of tourism studies on risk and safety since 1970s (Maser & Weiermair, 1998;Milman, Jones, & Bach, 1999;Pizam, 1999;Sirakaya, Sheppard, & McLellan, 1997;Sönmez, Apostolopoulos, & Tarlow, 1999;Sönmez & Graefe, 1998a, 1998bTsaur, Tzeng, & Wang, 1997;Wilks & Atherton, 1994). The term 'risk' was used extensively in tourism research after the 9/11 incident (Dickson & Dolnicar, 2004;Fuchs & Reichel, 2006;Korstanje, 2011;Law, 2006;Lepp & Gibson, 2003;Pizam et al, 2004;Quintal, Lee, & Soutar, 2010;Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005;Simpson & Siguaw, 2008;Williams & Baláž, 2013), followed by a couple of major tragedies including the SARS outbreak, the Bali bombings, and the Asian tsunami, which have shaken the tourism industry across the globe. The severity, frequency, and impact of these unprecedented tragedies have given rise to an increasing number of researches investigating the various aspects of risk in tourism.…”

“…Shin (2005) aptly pointed out that peace is a prerequisite for the success of tourism. Nevertheless, tourism product is intangible, inseparable, heterogeneous, and perishable in nature which implies that the purchase of a holiday in itself is a risk (Mitchell & Greatorex, 1993;Williams & Baláž, 2013). This general disagreement on the role of risk in tourism merits further empirical and theoretical examination.…”