Tour du dopage: Confessions of doping professional cyclists in a modern work environment

Abstract

Despite the widespread condemnation of blood doping in sport, since Lance Armstrong's acquittal in 2012, a flurry of riders' confessions have emphasized the omnipresence and normalization of the practice within cycling. Drawing an analogy between the origins of capitalist society and sport, this paper analyses doping cyclists' confessions in the media.Whilst there are many justifications for why cyclists might dope, little is known about the reasons and processes regarding how and why individuals portray this behavior as legitimate.To show this, the study draws on concepts of neutralization theory and performance at work to introduce the notion of 'performance egoism'. Findings show how doping and 'cheating' is legitimated by cyclists operating on three levels of spectacularised work, concerning individual's performance, their team's success and the grand spectacle of the Tour de France.It is concluded that the commodification of cultural performance at work breeds an environment of legitimated cheating.

Would Relaxation of the Anti-doping Rule Lead to Red Queen Effects?

“…Game theoretical models attempting to explain or predict doping behaviour cannot be tested against empirical data because of the covert nature of the behaviour and for fear of catastrophe if doping were allowed. However, the literature on the psychology and sociology of doping suggests a rich pattern of factors influencing doping behaviour where rational choice is not the rule (Elbe & Barkoukis, 2017;Ring et al, 2017;Smith, 2016). More generally, human decision-making exhibits a suite of biases when making economic decisions.…”

Marketing Evolution of Performance Enhancing Drugs in Professional Cycling

“…According to Johanson (1987), 'drug doping' has become a realistic feature of professional cycling given that 'good' performance can only be denoted by winning. As a result, doping is perceived to be a legitimate path to higher order ambitions in pursuit of increasing the level of success in cycling (Smith, 2017). Verroken (2005), maintains that the phenomenon of drug use in sport such as cycling must be seen in parallel with a 'pharmacological revolution' which began in the 1960s, because the search by pharmaceutical companies for more potent, more selective and less toxic drugs resulted in a vast array of powerful agents capable of altering many biochemical, physiological and psychological functions in the body.…”

“…The two most common performance enhancing techniques in cycling, during the 80's and beyond) were blood-doping and erythropoietin (EPO) (Smith, 2017). The former, concerns the removal, storage and re-injection of an athlete's own blood to increase the amount of oxygen that they are able to intake via an increase in red blood cells (Schjerling, 2005).…”

“…Therefore, the failings of anti-doping to 'level the playing field' are evident in the number of tests Armstrong and other riders 'passed', and in the confidence sports doctors had in planning dosages in such a way as to circumvent the testing system (Hoberman, 2003). These fallacies often translate to an inefficiency of testing system for the use of performance enhancing drugs in endurance sports such as professional cycling (Smith, 2017).…”

Can mechanical doping be justified in professional cyclists' modern work environment?

“…However, anti-doping has not been particularly successful since then, clearly marked by the Armstrong case in 2012 and his confession to pharmacological doping throughout his seven Tour De France (TDF) victories. Previously the author has shown from a 'sport as work' position that the reasons for ingesting substances have occurred as a result of the commodification of sport (Smith, 2015) wherein cyclists operate in an environment that is heavily commoditised and routinely requires exceptional performances in difficult working conditions. Despite the prevalence of these working conditions thus far many have balked at the idea of machine use, suggesting it may even spell the end of professional cycling (e.g.…”