“…Researchers have examined officers’ decisions to stop and question some citizens and not others (Alpert, Dunham, Stroshine, Bennett, & MacDonald, 2004; Phillips & Sobol, 2012) or to stop and frisk (Fradella, Morrow, & White, 2016; White & Fradella, 2016). More specific to use of force decisions, researchers have consistently found that the strongest predictor of police using force is the suspect’s behavior, particularly when the suspect is being noncompliant and resisting arrest (see Adam, 2015; Hine, Porter, Westera, & Alpert, 2016; Terrill, 2005; Terrill & Mastrofski, 2002). Furthermore, clear and strict policies have been found to be an effective tool in controlling discretionary decision making about the use of deadly force (Ferdik, Kaminski, Cooney, & Sevigny, 2014; Fyfe, 1979, 1981, 1982; Terrill & Paoline, 2017; White, 2001).…”