“…Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO 2 NPs) have become popular nanomaterials in a wide range of fields, including medicine, agriculture, bacteriostasis, wastewater management, personal care items, cosmetics, sunscreen, dental products, paint, and food [ 1 ]. TiO 2 NPs exposure can occur through inhalation, transdermal absorption, or ingestion, though oral intake is the most common, with a 75 kg adult human receiving 15–37.5 mg/kg/day through meals [ 2 ].…”