Timing of eating across ten European countries – results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) calibration study

Abstract

ObjectiveTo examine timing of eating across ten European countries.DesignCross-sectional analysis of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) calibration study using standardized 24 h diet recalls collected during 1995–2000. Eleven predefined food consumption occasions were assessed during the recall interview. We present time of consumption of meals and snacks as well as the later:earlier energy intake ratio, with earlier and later intakes defined as 06.00–14.00 and 15.00–24.00 hours, respectively. Type III tests were used to examine associations of sociodemographic, lifestyle and health variables with timing of energy intake.SettingTen Western European countries.SubjectsIn total, 22 985 women and 13 035 men aged 35–74 years (n 36 020).ResultsA south–north gradient was observed for timing of eating, with later consumption of meals and snacks in Mediterranean countries compared with Central and Northern European countries. However, the energy load was reversed, with the later:earlier energy intake ratio ranging from 0·68 (France) to 1·39 (Norway) among women, and from 0·71 (Greece) to 1·35 (the Netherlands) among men. Among women, country, age, education, marital status, smoking, day of recall and season were all independently associated with timing of energy intake (all P<0·05). Among men, the corresponding variables were country, age, education, smoking, physical activity, BMI and day of recall (all P<0·05).ConclusionsWe found pronounced differences in timing of eating across Europe, with later meal timetables but greater energy load earlier during the day in Mediterranean countries compared with Central and Northern European countries.

Eating patterns in a nationwide sample of Japanese aged 1–79 years from MINNADE study: eating frequency, clock time for eating, time spent on eating and variability of eating patterns

“…Because of the complex nature of eating patterns, existing research has used a variety of variables in terms of eating patterns, including eating frequency (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17) , timing of eating (13,(18)(19)(20)(21) and variability of eating patterns (22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27) , with equivocal outcomes. This may be mainly due to a lack of clear definitions of these variables.…”

Early dinner or “dinner like a pauper”: Evidence, the habitual time of the largest meal of the day – dinner – is predisposing to severe COVID-19 outcome – death

“…Research on intake frequency and proportional energy contribution from meals and snacks reveals strong diversity across Europe, with the greatest heterogeneity, in particular, in the clock time of the dinner meal, which was most frequently consumed between 16:00 and 17:00 h in the Nordic countries compared to 20:00 and 21:00 h in the Mediterranean countries (Huseinovic et al 2019). Along the same lines, the results reported by the WHO-Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative indicate that the prevalence of severe obesity in children is highest in Southern Europe and lowest in Northern Europe -Scandinavia.…”

“…These studies yielded data on eating frequency, time between eating, and/or time of day of peak caloric consumption. However, as far as we know, only the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) has classified the various European countries according to their national dinner time (Huseinovic et al 2019). Table 1 presents the death rate per one million people, as of 18:50 h GMT+1, 26 April 2020, as reported by "Statista" (Statista, Health and Pharmaceuticals, State of Health 2020).…”

Face Validity of Observed Meal Patterns Reported with 7-Day Diet Diaries in a Large Population-Based Cohort Using Diurnal Variation in Concentration Biomarkers of Dietary Intake

“…We have described meal size, frequency and timing of EDO and observed that meal size (rEI) varies by time of day and frequency of EDO. Such observations have been described for countries across the globe [31][32][33][34][35]. Methods for identifying meal patterns vary from study to study, and are likely to lead to differences in observed patterns, especially EDO frequency [1,2].…”