Time management: Test of a process model.

Abstract

Although the popular literature on time management claims that engaging in time management behaviors results in increased job performance and satisfaction and fewer job tensions, a theoretical framework and empirical examination are lacking. To address this deficiency, the author proposed and tested a process model of time management. Employees in a variety of jobs completed several scales; supervisors provided performance ratings. Examination of the path coefficients in the model suggested that engaging in some time management behaviors may have beneficial effects on tensions and job satisfaction but not on job performance. Contrary to popular claims, time management training was not found to be effective.There is a voluminous popular literature that lauds the benefits of time management. Examples of some books and magazine articles on the subject are: "Time Is Money, So Use It Productively" (Taylor & Mackenzie, 1986), "Put Time on Your Side" (Emanuel, 1982), and "How To Get Control of Your Time and Your Life" (Lakein, 1973). Surprisingly little empirical research, however, has examined time management. Perhaps it is because time management is typically viewed as a fad and not held in very high esteem by researchers in the field. Nonetheless, many organizations promote efficient use of company time and spend a great deal of money on having their employees learn these time management behaviors. This emphasis on time management stems from the untested popular belief that poor allocation of time not only increases employee stress, but also impairs performance. In the present research, I tested this belief by examining a process model of the effects of time management training on time management behaviors; perceived control of time; and stress responses, job satisfaction, and job performance. Process Model of Time Management Time Management Training Leads to Time Management BehaviorsAccording to Lakein's (1973) description of time management, individuals first determine their needs and wants and then rank them in terms of importance. Specific activities include setting goals to achieve the needs or wants and prioritizing the tasks necessary to accomplish them. The tasks of utmost I thank Gary K. Burger, Robert L. Dipboye, Miles L. Patterson, Carlla S. Smith, and Mark E. Tubbs for invaluable assistance. Thanks are also due Dick Jeanneret, Micheal Bosen, and Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) Services for the job structure information based on PAQ job data and to Denise Champagne for providing the data for Study 2.1 am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers, whose suggestions greatly improved the quality of the article.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Therese HofFMacan, Department of Psychology, University of MissouriSt. Louis, 8001 Natural Bridge Road, St. Louis, importance are then matched to the time and resources available by planning, scheduling, and making lists. Lakein also described other time management tips, such as organizing the work space and determining the approach to ...

Using Parcels to Convert Path Analysis Models Into Latent Variable Models

“…In many of the studies reviewed, the researchers used total scale scores in a path analysis model when they could have used parcels as indicators in a latent variable model (e.g., Cappella & Weinstein, 2001;Chan, Schmitt, DeShon, Clause, & Delbridge, 1997;Gong, Shenkar, Luo, & Nyaw, 2001;Hill & Fischer, 2001;Kahn, 2001;Lee & Liu, 2001;Lopez, 2001;Macan, 1994;Miller & Byrnes, 2001;Pajares & Miller, 1995;Perrone & Worthington, 2001;Portello & Long, 2001;Rioux & Penner, 2001;Rose & Feldman, 1997;Stice & Barrera, 1995;Weisz, Southam-Gerow, & McCarty, 2001;Whittaker & Robitschek, 2001). In all of these studies, no reason was provided for using a measured variable model rather than a latent variable model.…”

Planning for the future: A life management strategy for increasing control and life satisfaction in adulthood.

“…A. Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960;Smith, 1996) more open-ended, generalized life-planning tasks (e.g., Cantor, 1990;Little, 1983;Nurmi, 1989;Smith, 1996). This study focused on the latter approach by assessing self-reported planning styles.Process models of planning (e.g., S. L. Friedman & Scholnick, 1997;Macan, 1994;Scholnick & Friedman, 1993) suggest possible antecedents and outcomes of planning in both the problemsolving and life-planning domains. S. L. Friedman and Scholnick's model is one in which "multiple component skills, evoked by different sets of psychological and environmental circumstances," (p. 12) work together to influence each other and the planning process.…”

Technology‐assisted supplemental work: Construct definition and a research framework

“…However, we counter this dire prediction by proposing that time and boundary management has the power to lessen the intrusion of TASW on the family domain. Researchers are just beginning to unpack the time-and boundary-management constructs and relate them to work outcomes (Macan, 1994;Rastegary & Landy, 1993;Waller et al, 2001). However, our analysis indicates that workers who schedule and exploit their time wisely in their responsibilities at home and work and who set reasonably separate boundaries between work and family should be far less likely to experience work-to-family conflict due to performing TASW (Ashforth et al, 2000;Nippert-Eng, 1996).…”

“…The proposed moderator of time management has been identified as a multidimensional individual-level construct with multiple factors relating to achievement strivings: (1) the setting of goals/priorities, (2) scheduling and planning of activities, and (3) a preference for organization as timemanagement dimensions (Macan, 1994;Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, & Phillips, 1990). Individuals who excel at time management are inclined to differ in their experience of time by overestimating the passage of time, scheduling numerous objectives to be achieved within a specific period of time, engaging in self-set deadlines, and consistently monitoring their performance of time expended to time remaining to complete a task (Rastegary & Landy, 1993;Waller, Conte, Gibson, & Carpenter, 2001).…”

“…As one example, the relationship between TASW and job performance and career success may depend on the media richness of adopted technologies and the types of tasks performed with this technology (Daft & Lengel, 1984. As another example, the impact of TASW on work-to-family conflict may vary with the employee's time-and boundarymanagement skills (Ashforth, Kreiner, & Fugate, 2000;Macan, 1994). Drawing from recent theoretical and empirical work, there is reason to believe that employees who perform TASW and who are more effective at managing time and boundaries may experience less work-to-family conflict than those unable to manage time and work and home boundaries (Ashforth et al, 2000).…”