Three Unresolved Issues in Human Morality

Abstract

This article discusses three major, but related, controversies surrounding the idea of morality. Is the complete pattern of features defining human morality unique to this species? How context dependent are moral beliefs and the emotions that often follow a violation of a moral standard? What developmental sequence establishes a moral code? This essay suggests that human morality rests on a combination of cognitive and emotional processes that are missing from the repertoires of other species. Second, the moral evaluation of every behavior, whether by self or others, depends on the agent, the action, the target of the behavior, and the context. The ontogeny of morality, which begins with processes that apes possess but adds language, inference, shame, and guilt, implies that humans are capable of experiencing blends of thoughts and feelings for which no semantic term exists. As a result, conclusions about a person's moral emotions based only on questionnaires or interviews are limited to this evidence.

Differences in the Semantics of Prosocial Words: an Exploration of Compassion and Kindness

“…These circuits were less active if they were watching somebody who had previously been seen cheating or someone identified as belonging to a different group (football team). Importantly too in political debates, individuals from the general public have spoken about their dislike of "being made to feel guilty for not caring enough for the less fortunate" and a sense of "anger when politicians try to induce caring and compassion by inducing guilt", as seems to be the case on the caring and support for immigrants; or trying to entice the rich to take a greater sense of responsibility for the poor (Kagan 2018). It may make a big difference to people's preparedness to act with genuine kindness and/or compassion if they feel they are voluntarily choosing, rather than feeling that they should do it because it's expected of them (Catarino et al 2014).…”

The Psychology of Morality: A Review and Analysis of Empirical Studies Published From 1940 Through 2017

“…Moral judgments that function to maintain social order in this way rely on complex explanations and require verbal exchanges to communicate the moral overtones of behavioral guidelines. Language-driven interpretations and attributions are needed to capture symbolic meanings and inferred intentions that are not self-evident in behavioral displays or outwardly visible indicators of emotions (Ellemers, 2018; Kagan, 2018).…”

“…This also implies that there is no inherent moral value in specific actions or overt displays, for instance, of empathy or helping. Instead, the same behaviors can acquire different moral meanings, depending on the social context in which they are displayed and the relations between actors and targets involved in this context (Blasi, 1980; Gray, Young, & Waytz, 2012; Kagan, 2018; Reeder & Spores, 1983).…”

Moral affordance, moral expertise, and virtue

“…Rather, it is the learner's effort to emulate the intentional actions of a virtuous agent that leads to the acquisition of a predisposition to act in virtuous ways. The learner is not merely imitating another's actions, they are internalizing a way of acting in the world that is married to beliefs about what is right or wrong (Kagan, 2018).…”