Three‐dimensional Simulations of a Planet Embedded in a Protoplanetary Disk

Kley, W.; D’Angelo, Gennaro; Henning, Thomas

doi:10.1086/318345

Cited by 107 publications

(139 citation statements)

References 14 publications

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“…After about several tens of kyr, the gap turns into a central hole, which fills in after another few tens of kyr. The formation of a transient gap/hole through the infall from counter-rotating external environment presents an interesting alternative to other mechanisms of gap/hole formation, such as disk photoevaporation (Clarke et al 2001;Owen et al 2010) or gravitational clearing owing to a massive planet (e.g., Kley et al 2001). Our main results can be summarized as follows.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 92%

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The effect of external environment on the evolution of protostellar disks

Vorobyov

Lin

Guêdel

2014

A&A

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Aims. Using numerical hydrodynamics simulations, we studied the gravitational collapse of prestellar cores of subsolar mass embedded into a low-density external environment. Methods. Four models with different magnitude and direction of rotation of the external environment with respect to the central core were studied and compared with an isolated model. Results. We found that the infall of matter from the external environment can significantly alter the disk properties as compared to those seen in the isolated model. Depending on the magnitude and direction of rotation of the external environment, a variety of disks can form including compact (≤200 AU) ones shrinking in size owing to infall of external matter with low angular momentum, as well as extended disks forming from infall of external matter with high angular momentum. The former are usually stable against gravitational fragmentation, while the latter are prone to fragmentation and formation of stellar systems with substellar/very-low-mass companions. In the case of a counter-rotating external environment, very compact (<5 AU) and short-lived ( < ∼ a few 10 5 yr) disks can form when infalling material has low angular momentum. The most interesting case is found for the infall of counter-rotating external material with high angular momentum, leading to the formation of counter-rotating inner and outer disks separated by a deep gap at a few tens AU. The gap migrates inward owing to accretion of the inner disk onto the protostar, turns into a central hole, and finally disappears, giving way to the outer strongly gravitationally unstable disk. This model may lead to the emergence of a transient stellar system with planetary/substellar components counter-rotating with respect to that of the star.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 92%

“…Though being a short-lived phenomenon, this mechanism of the gap or hole formation can present an interesting alternative to other mechanisms, such as disk photoevaporation by the central star (Clarke et al 2001;Owen et al 2010) or gravitational clearing due to a massive planet (e.g. Kley et al 2001).…”

Section: Discussion: the Variety Of Disk Propertiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

The effect of external environment on the evolution of protostellar disks

Vorobyov

Lin

Guêdel

2014

A&A

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“…2.1. For that purpose we modified and substantially extended an existing multi-dimensional hydrodynamical code Nirvana (Ziegler & Yorke 1997;Kley et al 2001).…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Stellar irradiated discs and implications on migration of embedded planets

Bitsch

Crida

Morbidelli

et al. 2013

A&A

142

190

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Context. The strength and direction of migration of embedded low mass planets depends on the disc's thermodynamic state. It has been shown that, in discs where the viscous heating is balanced by radiative transport, the migration can be directed outwards, a process which extends the lifetime of growing planetary embryos. Aims. We investigate the influence of opacity and stellar irradiation on the disc thermodynamics. We focus on equilibrium discs, which have no net mass flux. Utilizing the resulting disc structure, we determine the regions of outward migration in the disc. Methods. We performed two-dimensional numerical simulations of equilibrium discs with viscous heating, radiative cooling, and stellar irradiation. We used the explicit/implicit hydrodynamical code NIRVANA that includes a full tensor viscosity and stellar irradiation, as well as a two temperature solver that includes radiation transport in the flux-limited diffusion approximation. The migration of embedded planets was studied by using torque formulae. Results. In the constant opacity case, our code reproduces the analytical results corresponding to a black-body disc: the stellar irradiation dominates in the outer regions -leading to flaring (H/r ∝ r 2/7 ) -while the viscous heating dominates close to the star. In particular, we find that the inner edge of the disc should not be significantly puffed-up by the stellar irradiation. If the opacity depends on the local density and temperature, the structure of the disc is different, and several bumps in the aspect ratio H/r appear, due to transitions between different opacity regimes. The bumps in the disc structure are very important, as they can shield the outer disc from stellar irradiation. Conclusions. Stellar irradiation is an important factor for determining the disc structure and has dramatic consequences for the migration of embedded planets. Compared to discs with only viscous heating and radiative cooling, a stellar irradiated disc features a much smaller region of outward migration for a range of planetary masses. This suggests that the region where the formation of giant planet cores takes place is smaller, which in turn might lead to a shorter growth phase.

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“…It is an outstanding question how much, if any, material may flow across the gap from the disk and be accreted onto the planet (see Bryden et al 1999;Kley 1999;Bryden et al 2000;Kley 2000;Lin et al 2000;Kley et al 2001). The results shown in those works suggest that accretion timescales (τ acc ∼ M p /Ṁ p ) are between 3 × 10 5 and 3 × 10 6 years for the viscosities, mass ratios, and other parameters we use in our models.…”

Section: Planetary Mass Accretion During Migrationmentioning

confidence: 96%

Orbital migration and the frequency of giant planet formation

Trilling¹,

Lunine²,

Benz³

2002

A&A

106

117

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Abstract. We present a statistical study of the post-formation migration of giant planets in a range of initial disk conditions. For given initial conditions we model the evolution of giant planet orbits under the influence of disk, stellar, and mass loss torques. We determine the mass and semi-major axis distribution of surviving planets after disk dissipation, for various disk masses, lifetimes, viscosities, and initial planet masses. The majority of planets migrate too fast and are destroyed via mass transfer onto the central star. Most surviving planets have relatively large orbital semi-major axes of several AU or larger. We conclude that the extrasolar planets observed to date, particularly those with small semi-major axes, represent only a small fraction (∼25% to 33%) of a larger cohort of giant planets around solar-type stars, and many undetected giant planets must exist at large (>1-2 AU) distances from their parent stars. As sensitivity and completion of the observed sample increase with time, this distant majority population of giant planets should be revealed. We find that the current distribution of extrasolar giant planet masses implies that high mass (more than 1-2 Jupiter masses) giant planet formation must be relatively rare. Finally, our simulations imply that the efficiency of giant planet formation must be high: at least 10% and perhaps as many as 80% of solar-type stars possess giant planets during their pre-main sequence phase. These predictions, including those for pre-main sequence stars, are testable with the next generation of ground-and space-based planet detection techniques.

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Three‐dimensional Simulations of a Planet Embedded in a Protoplanetary Disk

Cited by 107 publications

References 14 publications

The effect of external environment on the evolution of protostellar disks

The effect of external environment on the evolution of protostellar disks

Stellar irradiated discs and implications on migration of embedded planets

Orbital migration and the frequency of giant planet formation

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