Numerical simulations of flow over steep terrain using 11 different nonhydrostatic numerical models are compared and analyzed. A basic benchmark case and five other test cases are simulated in a two-dimensional framework using an identical initial state is based on conditions on 25 March 2006 during Intensive Observation Period (IOP) 6 of the Terrain-Induced Rotor Experiment (T-REX), in which intense mountain-wave activity was observed. All of the models use an identical horizontal resolution of 1 km and the same vertical resolution. The six simulated test cases use various terrain heights: a 100-m bell shaped hill, a 1000-m idealized ridge that is steeper on the lee slope, a 2500-m ridge, and a cross Sierra terrain profile. The models are tested with both free slip and no slip lower boundary conditions.The results indicate a surprisingly diverse spectrum of simulated mountain wave characteristics including lee waves, hydraulic-like jump features, and gravity wave breaking. The vertical velocity standard deviation is over a factor of two larger in the free slip experiments relative to the no slip simulations. Nevertheless, the no slip simulations exhibit considerable variations in the wave characteristics. The vertical flux of horizontal momentum profiles vary significantly among the models, particularly for the case with realistic Sierra terrain. The results imply relatively low predictability of key characteristics of topographically-forced flows such as the strength of downslope winds and stratospheric wave breaking. The vertical flux of horizontal momentum, which is a domain integrated quantity, exhibits considerable spread among the models, particularly for the experiments with the 2500-m ridge and Sierra terrain. The diversity among the various model simulations, all initialized with identical initial states, suggests that model dynamical cores may be an important component of diversity for the design of mesoscale ensemble systems for topographically-forced flows. The inter-model differences are significantly larger than sensitivity experiments within a single modeling system.
IntroductionThe fundamental linear theory for the generation of inviscid mountain waves forced by stratified air flow over two-dimensional obstacles has been established for several decades (e.g., Queney et al. 1960;Smith 1979;Smith 1989). Vertically propagating mountain waves often amplify in the stratosphere due to the decrease of atmospheric density with altitude and nonlinear processes, which may lead to overturning and turbulent breakdown (e.g., Lindzen 1988;Bacmeister and Schoeberl 1989). Mountain waves can have an important impact on the atmosphere due to their role in downslope windstorms (Klemp and Lilly 1975), clear-air turbulence (Clark et al. 2000), vertical mixing of water vapor, aerosols, and chemical constituents in the stratosphere (Dörnbrack and Dürbeck 1998), potential vorticity generation (Schär and Durran 1997), and orographic drag influence on the general circulation (Bretherton 1969;Ólafsson and Bougeau...